11.3 Environmental racism

Environmental racism disproportionately exposes communities of color to pollution and environmental hazards. It stems from systemic discrimination, unequal power dynamics, and historical practices like redlining that have shaped the distribution of environmental burdens.

The environmental justice movement emerged to address these inequities. It reframes environmentalism to include social justice and community empowerment, challenging the causes of environmental racism like socioeconomic factors, racial segregation, and lack of political representation.

Definition of environmental racism

• Environmental racism refers to the disproportionate exposure of communities of color to pollution, toxic waste, and other environmental hazards
• It encompasses the systemic and institutionalized ways in which environmental policies, practices, and decision-making negatively impact marginalized racial and ethnic groups
• Environmental racism is rooted in a history of racial discrimination, segregation, and unequal power dynamics that shape the distribution of environmental benefits and burdens

History of environmental racism

Early examples in the US

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• During the Jim Crow era, Black communities were often relegated to areas near industrial zones, landfills, and other polluting facilities (redlining)
• In the 1960s, the construction of highways and urban renewal projects disproportionately displaced and fragmented communities of color
• The Warren County PCB Landfill protest in 1982 is considered a pivotal moment in the environmental justice movement, as a predominantly Black community in North Carolina resisted the dumping of toxic waste in their neighborhood

Environmental justice movement

• The environmental justice movement emerged in the 1980s to address the intersection of racial, economic, and environmental inequities
• Grassroots organizations and activists, such as the United Church of Christ's Commission for Racial Justice and the First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit, played a crucial role in raising awareness and mobilizing communities
• The movement has sought to reframe environmentalism to include issues of social justice, public health, and community empowerment

Causes of environmental racism

Socioeconomic factors

• Low-income communities and communities of color often lack the financial resources and political clout to resist the siting of polluting industries and facilities in their neighborhoods
• Economic vulnerability and limited housing options make these communities more susceptible to environmental injustices
• Corporations and governments may exploit the lack of resources and political power in marginalized communities to avoid accountability and minimize costs

Racial segregation and housing discrimination

• Historical practices such as redlining, racial covenants, and discriminatory lending have contributed to the concentration of communities of color in areas with higher environmental risks
• Residential segregation has perpetuated disparities in access to clean air, water, and green spaces, as well as exposure to industrial pollution and toxic waste
• Zoning policies and land-use decisions have often reinforced patterns of environmental racism by concentrating polluting industries in or near marginalized communities

Lack of political power and representation

• Marginalized communities often face barriers to political participation and representation, limiting their ability to influence environmental decision-making processes
• Policymakers and regulatory agencies may prioritize the interests of industry and affluent communities over the concerns of communities of color
• The lack of diversity and inclusion in environmental organizations and government agencies can perpetuate blind spots and inadequate responses to environmental racism

Manifestations of environmental racism

Disproportionate exposure to pollution

• Communities of color are more likely to live in proximity to industrial facilities, highways, and other sources of air, water, and soil pollution
• Studies have shown that race is often a stronger predictor of exposure to environmental hazards than income or other socioeconomic factors
• Examples include the prevalence of oil refineries and petrochemical plants in predominantly Black and Latino neighborhoods (Cancer Alley in Louisiana), and the disproportionate impact of lead poisoning on children of color (Flint water crisis)

Unequal access to green spaces and natural resources

• Low-income communities and communities of color often have limited access to parks, green spaces, and recreational facilities
• The distribution of urban tree cover and vegetation is often skewed along racial and socioeconomic lines, with wealthier and whiter neighborhoods enjoying more green amenities
• Disparities in access to green spaces can have implications for physical and mental health, as well as overall quality of life

Disparities in environmental health outcomes

• Environmental racism contributes to significant health disparities, with communities of color experiencing higher rates of asthma, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and other environmentally-related illnesses
• Exposure to toxic substances, such as lead, mercury, and pesticides, can have long-term impacts on cognitive development, reproductive health, and overall well-being
• The cumulative effects of environmental stressors, combined with limited access to healthcare and other social determinants of health, exacerbate health inequities in marginalized communities

Case studies of environmental racism

Flint water crisis

• In 2014, the city of Flint, Michigan, which has a majority Black population, switched its water source to the Flint River as a cost-saving measure
• The inadequately treated water caused lead from aging pipes to leach into the water supply, exposing residents to dangerous levels of lead contamination
• Despite complaints from residents about the water's color, odor, and taste, officials initially dismissed concerns and failed to take prompt action, highlighting issues of institutional racism and neglect

Cancer Alley in Louisiana

• The 85-mile stretch along the Mississippi River between Baton Rouge and New Orleans, known as "Cancer Alley," is home to numerous petrochemical plants and refineries
• The predominantly Black communities in this region face disproportionately high rates of cancer, respiratory illnesses, and other health problems linked to industrial pollution
• Residents have long fought for environmental justice, challenging the concentration of polluting facilities and advocating for stricter regulations and corporate accountability

Navajo Nation uranium contamination

• During the Cold War, extensive uranium mining took place on Navajo Nation lands in the southwestern United States
• The mining operations left behind hundreds of abandoned mines, radioactive waste piles, and contaminated water sources, exposing Navajo communities to elevated levels of radiation and heavy metals
• The legacy of uranium contamination has contributed to higher rates of cancer, kidney disease, and other health problems among the Navajo people, who continue to grapple with the long-term impacts of environmental racism

Addressing environmental racism

Community activism and grassroots movements

• Grassroots organizations and community-led initiatives have been at the forefront of the fight against environmental racism
• Activists employ a range of strategies, including public education, community organizing, direct action, and media advocacy, to raise awareness and pressure decision-makers
• Examples include the Mothers of East Los Angeles, who successfully fought against the construction of a hazardous waste incinerator in their predominantly Latino neighborhood, and the Northside Coalition for Environmental Justice, which has advocated for the cleanup of industrial pollution in North Minneapolis

Legal challenges and policy reforms

• Environmental justice advocates have used legal tools, such as civil rights laws and environmental regulations, to challenge discriminatory practices and seek remedies for affected communities
• Landmark cases, such as Bean v. Southwestern Waste Management Corporation, have established important precedents for addressing environmental racism through the courts
• Policy reforms, such as the Executive Order 12898 on Environmental Justice signed by President Clinton in 1994, have sought to integrate environmental justice considerations into federal decision-making processes

Role of environmental organizations and allies

• Mainstream environmental organizations have increasingly recognized the need to address environmental racism and incorporate justice and equity into their agendas
• Collaborations between national environmental groups and local grassroots organizations can leverage resources, expertise, and networks to advance environmental justice goals
• Allies from other social justice movements, such as labor unions, faith-based organizations, and civil rights groups, have joined forces with environmental justice advocates to build broader coalitions for change

Intersection with other forms of oppression

Classism and poverty

• Environmental racism is closely intertwined with issues of economic inequality and poverty
• Low-income communities, which are disproportionately communities of color, often bear the brunt of environmental hazards due to limited housing options, lack of political power, and economic vulnerability
• Addressing environmental racism requires confronting the systemic forces that perpetuate poverty and wealth disparities along racial lines

Indigenous rights and sovereignty

• Indigenous communities have long faced environmental racism, with their lands and resources exploited by extractive industries and government policies
• The fight for environmental justice is closely tied to struggles for Indigenous sovereignty, self-determination, and the protection of traditional lands and cultural practices
• Examples include the resistance of Indigenous communities to oil pipelines (Dakota Access Pipeline), mining projects (Oak Flat), and deforestation (Amazon rainforest)

Gender and environmental justice

• Women, particularly women of color, often play leading roles in environmental justice movements as they bear disproportionate burdens of environmental harms
• Environmental hazards can have gendered impacts, such as the effects of toxic chemicals on reproductive health and the increased vulnerability of women to climate change-related disasters
• Ecofeminism and other intersectional frameworks highlight the connections between gender oppression and environmental degradation, advocating for a more holistic approach to justice

Global perspectives on environmental racism

Environmental colonialism and extractivism

• Environmental racism has global dimensions, with the exploitation of natural resources and the dumping of toxic waste in the Global South by multinational corporations and wealthy nations
• The legacy of colonialism and ongoing neo-colonial practices perpetuate environmental injustices, as the lands and livelihoods of marginalized communities in the Global South are sacrificed for the benefit of the Global North
• Examples include the export of electronic waste to countries like Ghana and Nigeria, and the displacement of Indigenous communities for palm oil plantations in Indonesia

Climate change and disproportionate impacts

• Climate change is an environmental justice issue, as its impacts are felt most acutely by marginalized communities and the Global South
• Low-income communities and communities of color are more vulnerable to climate-related disasters (hurricanes, floods, heatwaves) due to factors such as inadequate infrastructure, limited resources for adaptation and recovery, and pre-existing health disparities
• The burdens of climate change mitigation and adaptation are often borne by those who have contributed the least to the problem, raising questions of climate justice and equity

Transnational solidarity and resistance

• Environmental racism is a global phenomenon that requires transnational solidarity and resistance
• Grassroots movements and international networks, such as the Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives and the Climate Justice Alliance, connect struggles against environmental racism across borders
• Collaborative efforts, such as the Cochabamba Declaration and the People's Summit on Climate, aim to center the voices and demands of frontline communities in the fight for environmental justice
• Transnational alliances can build collective power, share strategies and resources, and challenge the global structures that perpetuate environmental racism