🌼Environmental History Unit 5 – Early Modern Environment: Exploration & Resources

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Early Modern Period spans from the 15th to the 18th century, characterized by significant changes in global exploration, trade, and resource exploitation
• Mercantilism economic system that emphasizes the accumulation of wealth through trade and the establishment of colonies
• Columbian Exchange transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Old World (Afro-Eurasia) and the New World (Americas) following Christopher Columbus's voyages
  • Introduced new crops to different regions (potatoes, tomatoes, maize)
  • Spread diseases that devastated indigenous populations (smallpox, measles)
• Triangular Trade system of trade routes connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas, involving the exchange of manufactured goods, enslaved people, and raw materials
• Encomienda system Spanish labor system that granted colonists the right to indigenous labor and tribute in exchange for providing protection and religious instruction
• Plantation agriculture large-scale farming of cash crops (sugar, tobacco, cotton) using enslaved labor, primarily in the Americas

Historical Context

• Age of Discovery period of extensive European exploration and colonization, beginning in the 15th century
  • Driven by the desire for new trade routes, resources, and the spread of Christianity
  • Facilitated by advancements in navigation and shipbuilding technologies
• Renaissance cultural and intellectual movement that originated in Italy and spread throughout Europe, fostering a spirit of inquiry and the pursuit of knowledge
• Protestant Reformation religious movement that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to the establishment of Protestant denominations
  • Contributed to the fragmentation of European politics and the rise of nation-states
• Scientific Revolution period of significant advancements in science, mathematics, and astronomy, challenging traditional beliefs and paving the way for the Enlightenment
• Enlightenment intellectual and philosophical movement that emphasized reason, individualism, and the scientific method, influencing political and social thought

Major Explorers and Expeditions

• Christopher Columbus Italian explorer who led four voyages to the Americas on behalf of the Spanish Crown, initiating the Columbian Exchange and European colonization of the New World
• Vasco da Gama Portuguese explorer who discovered the sea route to India around the Cape of Good Hope, establishing direct trade between Europe and Asia
• Ferdinand Magellan Portuguese explorer who led the first circumnavigation of the globe, demonstrating the vastness of the world's oceans and the potential for global trade
  • Expedition completed by Juan Sebastián Elcano after Magellan's death in the Philippines
• Hernán Cortés Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Aztec Empire in Mexico, facilitating Spanish colonization of Mesoamerica
• Francisco Pizarro Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru, establishing Spanish control over the Andean region
• James Cook British explorer who led three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, mapping much of the region and claiming Australia and New Zealand for the British Crown

Environmental Impact of Exploration

• Introduction of invasive species disruption of native ecosystems by non-native plants and animals, often leading to the extinction of indigenous species
  • Rats, pigs, and goats introduced to islands, decimating native bird and plant populations
  • Kudzu vine introduced to the United States, outcompeting native vegetation
• Deforestation clearing of forests for agriculture, timber, and urban development, leading to soil erosion, habitat loss, and climate change
  • Extensive deforestation in the Caribbean and South America for sugar and coffee plantations
  • Logging of old-growth forests in North America for shipbuilding and construction
• Overhunting and overfishing depletion of animal populations due to excessive exploitation for food, fur, and other products
  • Near-extinction of the North American bison due to overhunting
  • Collapse of cod fisheries in the North Atlantic due to overfishing
• Soil degradation deterioration of soil quality due to intensive agriculture, overgrazing, and erosion, leading to reduced fertility and desertification
• Pollution contamination of air, water, and soil due to mining, manufacturing, and urbanization, affecting human health and the environment
  • Mercury pollution from silver mining in the Americas
  • Coal smoke and industrial waste in European cities

Resource Exploitation and Trade

• Precious metals extraction of gold and silver from the Americas, fueling European economies and global trade
  • Spanish exploitation of silver mines in Potosí (Bolivia) and Zacatecas (Mexico)
  • Brazilian gold rush in the 18th century
• Cash crops cultivation of high-value crops for export, often using enslaved labor
  • Sugar plantations in the Caribbean and Brazil
  • Tobacco and cotton plantations in the American South
• Fur trade exchange of animal furs, primarily beaver, between indigenous peoples and European traders in North America
  • French and British competition for control of the fur trade
  • Depletion of beaver populations and disruption of indigenous economies
• Spice trade lucrative trade in spices (pepper, cinnamon, cloves) from Asia, driving European exploration and colonization
  • Portuguese control of the spice trade through the establishment of trading posts in India and Indonesia
  • Dutch East India Company's monopoly on the spice trade in the 17th century
• Slave trade forced migration of millions of Africans to the Americas as enslaved labor for plantations and mines
  • Triangular Trade connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas
  • Devastating impact on African societies and demographics

Technological Advancements

• Magnetic compass improved maritime navigation, enabling longer voyages and the exploration of new trade routes
• Astrolabe and sextant instruments used to determine latitude at sea, improving navigation accuracy
• Caravel and galleon ship designs that were faster, more maneuverable, and capable of carrying larger cargoes, facilitating long-distance trade and exploration
  • Caravels used by Portuguese explorers to navigate along the African coast
  • Galleons used by the Spanish for transatlantic trade and treasure fleets
• Gunpowder and firearms military technologies that gave European powers a significant advantage over indigenous populations
  • Use of cannons and arquebuses in the conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires
  • Adoption of firearms by some indigenous groups, such as the Iroquois in North America
• Printing press invention that revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge and ideas, contributing to the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment
  • Gutenberg's movable type printing press in Europe
  • Spread of printed books, pamphlets, and maps

Cultural Exchange and Conflicts

• Missionary activities efforts by European religious orders to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity
  • Jesuit missions in Asia, Africa, and the Americas
  • Franciscan and Dominican missions in the Spanish colonies
• Mestizaje biological and cultural mixing of European, indigenous, and African peoples in the Americas, creating new hybrid identities and societies
  • Mestizo and mulatto populations in Latin America
  • Creole elite in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies
• Syncretism blending of religious beliefs and practices from different cultures, often as a result of colonization and forced conversion
  • Santería in Cuba, combining elements of Yoruba religion and Catholicism
  • Day of the Dead in Mexico, merging indigenous Aztec traditions with Catholic All Souls' Day
• Resistance and rebellion indigenous and enslaved peoples' efforts to resist European domination and maintain their cultures and identities
  • Pueblo Revolt in New Mexico against Spanish colonizers
  • Maroon communities of escaped enslaved Africans in the Caribbean and South America
• Linguistic exchange adoption and adaptation of words and phrases between languages as a result of cultural contact
  • Loanwords from indigenous languages in English (maize, canoe, hammock)
  • Influence of African languages on creole languages in the Caribbean

Legacy and Modern Implications

• Globalization interconnectedness of the world's economies, cultures, and populations, a process that began with the Age of Discovery and has accelerated in the modern era
  • Global trade networks and the rise of multinational corporations
  • Cultural exchange and the spread of ideas through the internet and mass media
• Environmental degradation ongoing impact of resource exploitation, deforestation, and pollution on the planet's ecosystems and climate
  • Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest for agriculture and mining
  • Climate change and rising sea levels due to greenhouse gas emissions
• Social and economic inequalities persistent disparities in wealth, education, and opportunities between former colonial powers and their former colonies
  • Poverty and underdevelopment in many African and Latin American countries
  • Ongoing struggles for indigenous rights and self-determination
• Postcolonial studies academic field that examines the cultural, political, and economic legacies of colonialism and imperialism
  • Analysis of power relations and the construction of knowledge in colonial contexts
  • Critique of Eurocentrism and the promotion of alternative perspectives and narratives
• Sustainable development efforts to balance economic growth, social equity, and environmental protection in the face of global challenges
  • Promotion of renewable energy and green technologies
  • Emphasis on indigenous knowledge and community-based resource management