12.2 Key Multilateral Environmental Agreements

International environmental agreements tackle global challenges like climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution. Key treaties include the Paris Agreement, Convention on Biological Diversity, and Basel Convention, each addressing specific environmental concerns.

These agreements establish frameworks for cooperation, set targets, and create mechanisms for implementation. They reflect the international community's efforts to protect the planet and promote sustainable development through collective action and shared responsibility.

International Climate Change Agreements

Global Efforts to Combat Climate Change

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• Paris Agreement establishes legally binding framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions
  • Adopted in 2015 at COP21 in Paris
  • Aims to limit global temperature increase to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels
  • Requires countries to submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) outlining emission reduction targets
  • Includes provisions for climate finance and technology transfer to support developing countries
• Kyoto Protocol sets binding emission reduction targets for developed countries
  • Adopted in 1997, entered into force in 2005
  • First commitment period: 2008-2012, second commitment period: 2013-2020
  • Introduces market-based mechanisms (emissions trading, Clean Development Mechanism, Joint Implementation)
  • Covers six greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride)

Foundational Frameworks for Climate Action

• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) provides overarching structure for international climate negotiations
  • Adopted in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro
  • Entered into force in 1994 with 197 parties
  • Establishes Conference of the Parties (COP) as supreme decision-making body
  • Recognizes common but differentiated responsibilities principle
• Montreal Protocol addresses ozone depletion while indirectly contributing to climate change mitigation
  • Adopted in 1987, entered into force in 1989
  • Phases out production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (chlorofluorocarbons, halons)
  • Kigali Amendment (2016) expands scope to include hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
  • Has successfully reduced ozone-depleting substances by over 98% since 1989

Biodiversity and Wildlife Protection Treaties

Conservation of Global Biodiversity

• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) promotes sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity
  • Adopted in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro
  • Three main objectives: conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components, fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources
  • Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2000) addresses safe handling, transport, and use of living modified organisms
  • Nagoya Protocol (2010) focuses on access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) regulates international trade in endangered species
  • Entered into force in 1975
  • Categorizes species into three appendices based on level of protection needed
  • Requires permits for international trade in listed species
  • Covers over 35,000 species of animals and plants (both living specimens and derived products)

Protection of Wetland Ecosystems

• Ramsar Convention promotes conservation and sustainable use of wetlands
  • Adopted in 1971 in Ramsar, Iran
  • Designates Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites)
  • Encourages wise use of all wetlands through national plans, policies, and legislation
  • Facilitates international cooperation for transboundary wetlands and shared wetland systems
  • Currently protects over 2,400 Ramsar Sites covering more than 250 million hectares globally

Pollution and Waste Management Conventions

Hazardous Waste Management and Toxic Substance Control

• Basel Convention regulates transboundary movements of hazardous wastes
  • Adopted in 1989, entered into force in 1992
  • Aims to reduce generation of hazardous wastes and promote environmentally sound management
  • Establishes prior informed consent procedure for waste shipments
  • Ban Amendment (adopted 1995, entered into force 2019) prohibits export of hazardous wastes from developed to developing countries
• Stockholm Convention addresses persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
  • Adopted in 2001, entered into force in 2004
  • Targets elimination or restriction of production and use of specific POPs (DDT, PCBs, dioxins)
  • Promotes best available techniques and best environmental practices for new sources of unintentionally produced POPs
  • Requires parties to develop national implementation plans
  • Currently covers 28 POPs, with provisions for adding new substances

Marine Environmental Protection

Comprehensive Framework for Ocean Governance

• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) establishes legal framework for marine activities
  • Adopted in 1982, entered into force in 1994
  • Divides marine areas into zones with different legal statuses (territorial sea, exclusive economic zone, high seas)
  • Addresses maritime boundaries, navigation rights, and resource exploitation
  • Includes provisions for marine environmental protection and conservation
  • Establishes International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea to settle disputes
  • Covers various aspects of ocean use (fisheries management, marine scientific research, seabed mining)