9.1 Anthropocentrism vs. Ecocentrism

Environmental ethics grapples with the tension between anthropocentrism and ecocentrism. Anthropocentrism places humans at the center, valuing nature for its usefulness to us. Ecocentrism sees intrinsic worth in ecosystems and species, regardless of human benefit.

These perspectives shape how we approach environmental policies and sustainability. Anthropocentric views often lead to resource management for human gain, while ecocentric ethics call for preserving nature's integrity. The debate influences how we balance human needs with ecological preservation.

Anthropocentric vs Ecocentric Ethics

Defining Anthropocentrism and Ecocentrism

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• Anthropocentrism views humans as the most important or valuable entities in the universe and that the value of other things depends on their utility for humans
  • In environmental ethics, an anthropocentric approach judges the value of nature based on its instrumental value for human well-being and flourishing
• Ecocentrism is a nature-centered system of values that considers the ecosphere and ecosystem as having intrinsic value
  • An ecocentric environmental ethic regards the earth's ecological integrity and the flourishing of natural ecosystems and species as inherently valuable, regardless of their usefulness to humans

Key Differences and Critiques

• Anthropocentrism is individualistic in its approach, focused on humans, while ecocentrism has a more holistic view that considers the interrelatedness and interdependence of all elements in ecosystems
• Anthropocentrism aligns with a hierarchy of moral status that privileges humans, while ecocentrism adopts a "flat" ontology that does not place humans above other elements of the natural world in terms of moral worth
• Ecocentric thinkers often critique anthropocentrism as an instrumentalist approach that has enabled rampant human exploitation and degradation of the environment
• Anthropocentrists argue that human values are still the basis for any environmental ethic, even if we value nature "intrinsically"

Intrinsic Value of Nature

Arguments for Intrinsic Value in Nature

• The idea of intrinsic value in nature holds that natural things have value as ends in themselves, not just as means to human ends
  • Ecocentrists argue that elements of nature can be intrinsically valuable in a non-instrumental sense
• Aldo Leopold's land ethic claims that the integrity, stability, and beauty of the "biotic community" has intrinsic value that should be respected alongside human interests
• Holmes Rolston III argues that humans are not the only "valuers" and that value exists objectively in the natural processes that support life
  • He claims intrinsic value exists in organisms achieving their own good and ecosystems maintaining themselves

Critiques and Challenges

• Critics argue the concept of intrinsic value in nature is incoherent
  • Only humans (or sentient animals) can be "valuers," so all values must be grounded anthropocentrically
  • Bryan Norton argues that anthropocentrism can justify robust environmental protections by incorporating how human valuations of nature and future generations into an expanded sense of human welfare
• A challenge for ecocentrism is to explain how we can compare the intrinsic value in nature to human values in making difficult tradeoffs
  • What are the decision procedures for an ecocentric ethic when human and ecological interests conflict?

Environmental Policy Implications

Anthropocentric vs Ecocentric Policies

• Anthropocentric policies prioritize human welfare and well-being as the ultimate criteria for environmental decision-making
  • Nature is protected instrumentally to the extent that conservation benefits humans
  • This can justify aggressive interventions to manage nature to maximize "ecosystem services" and natural resources useful for development (timber, fisheries)
• Ecocentric policies would limit human activities that disrupt or degrade natural ecosystems, even if those activities benefit humans
  • Preserving wilderness and biodiversity would be prioritized over economic benefits
  • The Endangered Species Act has been defended on ecocentric grounds that threatened and endangered species have a "right to exist" regardless of their value to humans

Sustainability and Ecological Justice

• Ecocentric critiques argue that anthropocentric policies enable short-term thinking and the sacrifice of long-term ecological sustainability for immediate human gratification
  • Anthropocentrists counter that human values are still what justify any environmental protections in ecocentric policies
• Ecocentric worldviews would give much more weight to the interests of future generations of both humans and non-human nature in policy decisions
  • Anthropocentrism focuses more on the interests of currently existing humans
• In international environmental policy, an ecocentric ethic could justify obligations of ecological justice
  • This includes ensuring that less developed countries are able to benefit from the sustainable use of their ecological resources (rainforests, biodiversity)

Ethical Perspectives on Nature

Alignment with Traditional Ethical Theories

• Anthropocentrism aligns with many traditional ethical frameworks like utilitarianism and Kantian deontology that base moral status on human traits like sentience and rationality
  • These theories can be extended to incorporate environmental values instrumentally in terms of human welfare
• Biocentric ethics extend moral status to all individual living things based on their inherent nature as "teleological centers of life"
  • This is a more individualistic approach compatible with both ecocentrism and some forms of anthropocentrism (arguments for animal rights)

Holistic and Social Ecological Perspectives

• Aldo Leopold's land ethic is a holistic ecocentric ethic that attributes intrinsic value to ecosystems and the biotic community as a whole
  • It represents a non-individualistic approach that differs from traditional human-centered ethical theories
• Social ecology and ecofeminism explore how social hierarchies and domination of marginalized humans are connected to the domination of nature
  • These frameworks are critical of anthropocentrism but still emphasize human liberation
  • Murray Bookchin's social ecology advocates dissolving human social hierarchies to create an ecological society that can live in harmony with nature without dominating it
• Deep ecology argues for a radical ecocentric worldview that all life has inherent worth and that humans have no right to reduce the richness and diversity of life except to satisfy vital needs
  • It calls for radically transforming human societies to be compatible with these values
• Pragmatic environmental ethics grounded in anthropocentric values are more compatible with incremental reforms to laws, policies, and economic incentives
  • Ecocentric ethics imply a more revolutionary change in human practices and worldviews