8.2 Military Technology and Tactics

The Hundred Years' War saw major shifts in military tech and tactics. The English longbow and rise of infantry challenged the dominance of mounted knights, reshaping battlefield dynamics. These changes laid the groundwork for future warfare innovations.

Gunpowder weapons, though still primitive, began to impact siege warfare and fortress design. The conflict highlighted the contrast between English and French strategies, with the English relying on mobility and longbows while the French adapted their traditional tactics to counter new threats.

Longbow's Impact on English Success

Longbow's Tactical Advantages

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• The longbow was a powerful and accurate weapon with an effective range of up to 200 meters, allowing English archers to engage the enemy from a distance
• English armies typically deployed longbowmen in large numbers, often comprising more than half of the total force, providing a significant tactical advantage
• The longbow's high rate of fire and penetrating power made it effective against both infantry and cavalry, disrupting enemy formations and causing heavy casualties
  • Longbowmen could shoot up to 10-12 arrows per minute, maintaining a constant barrage of fire
  • The bodkin-tipped arrows could pierce through most armor at close range, making them deadly against even well-protected opponents

Longbow's Influence on Key Battles and Tactics

• English victories at the battles of Sluys (1340), Crécy (1346), and Poitiers (1356) were largely attributed to the devastating impact of massed longbow fire
  • At Crécy, English longbowmen decimated the Genoese crossbowmen and French cavalry, securing a decisive victory
  • The Battle of Poitiers saw a smaller English force defeat a larger French army, with longbowmen playing a crucial role in the outcome
• The longbow's effectiveness led to changes in French military tactics, such as the increased use of dismounted men-at-arms and the deployment of crossbowmen to counter English archers
  • The French began to employ more infantry and missile troops to protect their cavalry from the devastating effects of longbow fire
  • Crossbowmen, despite their slower rate of fire, were used to engage English archers at longer ranges

Infantry's Rise vs Knight's Decline

Factors Contributing to Infantry's Increased Importance

• The widespread use of the longbow and the development of pike formations diminished the effectiveness of mounted knights on the battlefield
• Infantry units, such as dismounted men-at-arms and pikemen, became more valuable due to their ability to withstand cavalry charges and engage in close combat
  • Dismounted men-at-arms, armed with polearms and swords, could form a solid defensive line against cavalry attacks
  • Pikemen, equipped with long spears, could present a formidable obstacle to charging horses and riders
• The French began to rely more heavily on professional infantry, such as the Genoese crossbowmen, to counter the English longbowmen and provide a more flexible fighting force
  • Genoese crossbowmen were skilled mercenaries who could engage English archers at longer ranges and provide support for French cavalry and infantry

Declining Role of Mounted Knights

• The Battle of Agincourt (1415) demonstrated the vulnerability of mounted knights to well-disciplined infantry and longbow fire, leading to a significant shift in military tactics
  • The French cavalry, bogged down in muddy terrain, was decimated by English longbowmen and dismounted men-at-arms
  • The battle highlighted the diminishing effectiveness of the traditional cavalry charge against well-prepared infantry
• The increasing cost of maintaining mounted knights and their declining effectiveness on the battlefield led to a gradual shift towards professional standing armies composed primarily of infantry
  • The expense of equipping and training knights, coupled with their limited utility in certain battlefield conditions, made them less attractive as the primary military force
  • Professional infantry, drawn from the lower classes and equipped with more cost-effective weapons, became the backbone of many European armies

Gunpowder Weapons' Development and Use

Early Gunpowder Weapons and Their Limitations

• Gunpowder weapons, such as cannons and handguns, began to appear on European battlefields during the 14th century, gradually becoming more prevalent throughout the Hundred Years' War
• Early cannons were primarily used for sieges, as their lack of mobility and slow rate of fire made them less effective in open battles
  • Cannons were heavy, difficult to transport, and required significant time to reload between shots
  • Despite these limitations, cannons proved valuable in breaking down castle walls and fortifications during prolonged sieges
• Handguns, such as the arquebus, were introduced in the later stages of the war, providing infantry with a new weapon that could penetrate armor at close range
  • The arquebus was a primitive firearm that was slow to reload and inaccurate at longer distances
  • However, it could be effectively used in volley fire by groups of infantry, particularly against tightly packed formations

Impact on Fortress Design and Future Warfare

• The increasing use of gunpowder weapons led to changes in fortress design, with thicker walls and lower profiles becoming more common to withstand cannon fire
  • Star forts, with their angled walls and low silhouettes, were developed to better resist the impact of cannon balls
  • Fortifications began to incorporate more earthworks and bastions to absorb the shock of artillery fire
• While the impact of gunpowder weapons was limited during the Hundred Years' War, their development laid the foundation for their dominant role in European warfare in the centuries that followed
  • The continued improvement of firearms and artillery would eventually revolutionize warfare, leading to the decline of traditional castle defenses and the rise of more modern fortifications
  • The increasing reliance on gunpowder weapons would also have significant implications for military tactics, training, and the composition of armies in the early modern era

English vs French Military Strategies

English Strategies and Tactics

• The English strategy relied heavily on the use of the longbow, with a focus on defensive positions and tactical flexibility, as exemplified by the battles of Crécy and Agincourt
  • English armies often chose favorable terrain, such as hillsides or narrow passages, to maximize the effectiveness of their longbowmen
  • The English demonstrated the ability to adapt their tactics to the situation, such as the use of stakes and trenches to protect their archers and infantry
• English armies often used chevauchées, fast-moving raids designed to devastate the French countryside and disrupt the enemy's economy, as a means of pressuring the French crown
  • These raids targeted farms, villages, and towns, destroying crops, livestock, and infrastructure to weaken the French state and its ability to wage war
  • Chevauchées also served to demoralize the French population and undermine the authority of the French monarchy
• The English generally favored smaller, more mobile armies, which could strike quickly and decisively, while minimizing the logistical challenges of supplying a large force
  • The English reliance on longbowmen and light infantry allowed them to move rapidly through enemy territory and engage in hit-and-run tactics
  • Smaller armies also required less food and supplies, making them easier to sustain during long campaigns

French Strategies and Tactics

• The French initially relied on the traditional tactics of mounted knights, but gradually adapted to the changing battlefield by employing more infantry and gunpowder weapons
  • The French nobility, steeped in the tradition of chivalry, initially resisted the shift away from mounted warfare
  • However, the repeated defeats at the hands of English longbowmen and infantry forced the French to reassess their approach and incorporate more diverse troop types
• The French, with their larger population and resources, focused on maintaining control of key cities and fortresses, while attempting to limit English gains through siege warfare and attrition
  • The French sought to protect their most important strongholds, such as Paris and Orleans, to prevent the English from gaining a foothold in the heart of France
  • By engaging in prolonged sieges, the French hoped to wear down English armies and force them to withdraw due to lack of supplies or disease
• The French tended to field larger forces that were less maneuverable but could bring greater numbers to bear in battle
  • The French armies often included a significant contingent of heavily armored knights and men-at-arms, which could be a formidable force in close combat
  • However, the size and composition of these armies made them less adaptable and more vulnerable to the English tactics of attrition and hit-and-run attacks

Diplomatic Efforts and Alliances

• Both sides engaged in diplomatic efforts to secure alliances and gain strategic advantages
  • The English formed alliances with Flanders and Brittany, securing important economic and military partners in their fight against the French
  • The French sought support from Scotland and Castile, attempting to open up new fronts and divert English resources away from the main conflict
• These alliances played a significant role in shaping the course of the war, providing additional resources, troops, and strategic options for both sides
  • The Auld Alliance between France and Scotland, for example, forced the English to devote attention and resources to defending their northern border
  • The Flemish alliance provided the English with a valuable source of financial support and a strategic foothold on the continent