💣European History – 1890 to 1945 Unit 1 – Nationalism, Imperialism & Alliances (1890s)

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Nationalism: Strong loyalty and devotion to one's nation, often accompanied by a sense of superiority over other nations
• Imperialism: The policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means
• Colonialism: The practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically
• Sphere of influence: A claim by a major power to exclusive or predominant control over a foreign area or territory
• Balance of power: The theory that peace and stability are best achieved by an even distribution of power among nations
• Militarism: The belief that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests
• Jingoism: Extreme nationalism characterized by a belligerent foreign policy and advocating for the use of threats or actual force against other countries

Historical Context

• The late 19th century saw a surge in nationalism and imperialism among European powers
• Technological advancements (steamships, railroads, telegraphs) facilitated colonial expansion and global communication
• The Industrial Revolution led to increased demand for raw materials and new markets, fueling imperialist ambitions
• The Berlin Conference (1884-1885) established rules for the colonization of Africa, intensifying the "Scramble for Africa"
• The rise of nationalism in Europe was influenced by various factors, including:
  • The unification of Germany and Italy in the 1860s and 1870s
  • The spread of romantic nationalism, emphasizing cultural and linguistic unity
  • The growth of mass politics and the emergence of nationalist political parties
• The decline of the Ottoman Empire created a power vacuum in the Balkans, leading to increased tensions and rivalries among European powers

Rise of Nationalism

• Nationalism became a dominant political ideology in 19th-century Europe, shaping the identities and aspirations of nations and peoples
• The French Revolution (1789-1799) and Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) spread nationalist ideas across Europe, challenging the legitimacy of traditional monarchies and empires
• Nationalist movements often sought to create or strengthen nation-states based on shared language, culture, and history (German and Italian unification)
• Romantic nationalism, as promoted by intellectuals and artists, glorified the unique traditions, folklore, and landscapes of each nation
• Nationalist ideologies often led to conflicts between nations and ethnic groups, as seen in the Balkans and Austria-Hungary
• The rise of mass politics and universal male suffrage allowed nationalist parties to gain popular support and influence government policies
• Nationalism also fueled imperialist ambitions, as nations sought to assert their power and prestige on the global stage

Imperialism and Colonial Expansion

• European powers engaged in a global competition for colonies, driven by economic, political, and strategic interests
• The British Empire, the largest in history, spanned across continents (India, Africa, Australia, North America)
• France established a vast colonial empire, with possessions in Africa (Algeria, Morocco, West Africa), Asia (Indochina), and the Caribbean
• Germany, a late entrant to the colonial race, acquired territories in Africa (Namibia, Cameroon, Togo) and the Pacific (New Guinea, Samoa)
• Belgium's King Leopold II established the Congo Free State as his personal colony, notorious for its brutal exploitation of the local population
• The United States, following the Spanish-American War (1898), acquired overseas territories (Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam) and established a sphere of influence in Latin America
• Colonial expansion was justified through ideologies of racial superiority and the "civilizing mission" of European powers
• The scramble for colonies led to increased tensions and rivalries among European nations, setting the stage for future conflicts

Formation of Alliances

• The late 19th century saw the emergence of a complex system of alliances among European powers, aimed at maintaining the balance of power and securing national interests
• The Dual Alliance (1879) between Germany and Austria-Hungary formed the basis of the Central Powers
  • Italy joined the alliance in 1882, forming the Triple Alliance
• The Franco-Russian Alliance (1894) was a response to the Triple Alliance and a counterweight to German power
• The Entente Cordiale (1904) between Britain and France resolved colonial disputes and paved the way for closer cooperation
  • The Anglo-Russian Convention (1907) settled conflicts in Asia and completed the Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia)
• The alliance system divided Europe into two opposing blocs, the Central Powers and the Triple Entente
• The rigid nature of these alliances meant that a conflict between two nations could quickly escalate into a larger war involving multiple powers

Major Powers and Their Ambitions

• Great Britain aimed to maintain its vast colonial empire, protect its maritime supremacy, and prevent any single power from dominating the European continent
• Germany, under Kaiser Wilhelm II, pursued a policy of Weltpolitik (world politics), seeking to expand its colonial possessions and assert its status as a global power
  • The construction of a large German navy (Tirpitz Plan) challenged British naval supremacy and heightened tensions
• France sought to regain its position as a leading European power, recover the lost provinces of Alsace-Lorraine from Germany, and expand its colonial empire
• Russia, driven by Pan-Slavic nationalism, aimed to extend its influence in the Balkans and gain access to the Mediterranean Sea through the Ottoman-controlled Bosporus and Dardanelles straits
• Austria-Hungary, a multi-ethnic empire, sought to maintain its dominance in the Balkans and counter nationalist movements that threatened its unity
• Italy, a newly unified nation, aimed to establish itself as a great power and expand its territorial possessions, particularly in North Africa (Libya) and the Adriatic region

Impact on International Relations

• The combination of nationalism, imperialism, and the alliance system created a volatile and unstable international environment
• Colonial rivalries and the scramble for territories led to increased tensions and diplomatic crises (Fashoda Incident, Moroccan Crises)
• The arms race, particularly the naval rivalry between Britain and Germany, fueled militarism and heightened the risk of war
• The decline of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of nationalist movements in the Balkans created a powder keg that threatened to ignite a larger European conflict
  • The Balkan Wars (1912-1913) demonstrated the potential for regional conflicts to escalate and involve the great powers
• The rigid alliance system meant that a local dispute could quickly draw in multiple nations, as seen in the July Crisis following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914
• The failure of diplomacy and the prevalence of militarism and nationalist fervor made war seem increasingly inevitable

Legacy and Consequences

• The forces of nationalism, imperialism, and the alliance system ultimately led to the outbreak of World War I (1914-1918), one of the deadliest conflicts in human history
• The war resulted in the collapse of four empires (Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, German, and Russian) and redrew the political map of Europe and the Middle East
• The Treaty of Versailles (1919) and other post-war settlements attempted to address the issues of nationalism and self-determination, but also sowed the seeds for future conflicts
  • The harsh terms imposed on Germany, including territorial losses and war reparations, fueled resentment and contributed to the rise of Nazism
• The League of Nations, established to promote international cooperation and prevent future wars, ultimately failed to maintain peace in the face of rising nationalism and aggression in the 1930s
• The legacies of colonialism and imperialism continued to shape global politics and conflicts throughout the 20th century, as former colonies struggled for independence and self-determination
• The lessons learned from the failures of the pre-World War I era continue to influence international relations and the search for effective mechanisms to promote peace and stability in the modern world