7.3 The Process and Challenges of Italian Unification

Italian unification was a complex process that transformed the political landscape of 19th-century Europe. From secret societies to strategic diplomacy, various forces worked to unite the fragmented Italian states into a single nation.

The newly formed Kingdom of Italy faced numerous challenges, including regional disparities, economic hurdles, and conflicts with the Catholic Church. These issues shaped Italy's development and its role in European affairs for decades to come.

Italian Unification: Key Events

Early Nationalist Movements and Uprisings

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• Congress of Vienna in 1815 divided Italy into several states
  • Austria controlled Lombardy and Venetia
  • Set the stage for the Risorgimento (Italian unification movement)
• Carbonari, a secret revolutionary society, initiated unsuccessful uprisings (1820s and 1830s)
  • Contributed to growing nationalist sentiment
  • Inspired future revolutionaries (Mazzini, Garibaldi)
• Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Italy in 1831
  • Promoted idea of unified, republican Italy
  • Inspired future nationalist leaders (Cavour, Garibaldi)
• Revolutions of 1848 saw widespread uprisings across Italian states
  • Five Days of Milan expelled Austrian forces
  • Roman Republic established (led by Mazzini and Garibaldi)
  • Ultimately suppressed by Austrian and French intervention

Cavour's Diplomacy and Wars of Independence

• Count Camillo di Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, advanced unification cause
  • Implemented liberal reforms to modernize Piedmont-Sardinia
  • Formed strategic alliances (France, Britain)
  • Manipulated diplomatic situations to isolate Austria
• Second Italian War of Independence (1859)
  • Piedmont-Sardinia and France defeated Austria
  • Resulted in Piedmont-Sardinia annexing Lombardy
• Giuseppe Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand (1860)
  • Conquered Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
  • Turned over southern conquests to Piedmont-Sardinia

Formation and Completion of the Kingdom of Italy

• Kingdom of Italy proclaimed in 1861
  • Victor Emmanuel II crowned as first king
  • Venetia and Rome remained outside Italian control
• Third Italian War of Independence (1866)
  • Italy allied with Prussia against Austria
  • Led to annexation of Venetia
• Capture of Rome (1870)
  • Italian forces entered Rome on September 20
  • Papal States incorporated into Kingdom of Italy
• Unification process completed in 1871
  • Rome declared capital of unified Italy
  • Ended centuries of political fragmentation

Challenges of a Unified Italy

Regional Disparities and Administrative Hurdles

• "Southern Question" emerged as significant issue
  • Highlighted economic disparities between industrialized North and agrarian South
  • Cultural differences between regions complicated integration
• Creation of unified administrative system posed challenges
  • Diverse regional structures inherited from pre-unification states
  • Needed to establish consistent legal code across the country
• Linguistic fragmentation hindered national unity
  • Only small percentage of population spoke standard Italian
  • Most used regional dialects (Neapolitan, Sicilian, Venetian)
• Nation-building required development of shared national identity
  • Difficult due to Italy's long history of regional divisions
  • Efforts made to create national symbols, myths, and traditions

Economic and Social Challenges

• Economic challenges hindered development of new state
  • Lack of natural resources (coal, iron)
  • Limited industrialization outside of northern regions
  • Significant national debt incurred during unification process
• Widespread illiteracy impeded progress
  • Estimated 75% of population illiterate at time of unification
  • Lack of universal education system
  • Hindered efforts to create informed and engaged citizenry
• Political instability persisted throughout early years
  • Frequent changes in government (over 30 between 1861 and 1922)
  • Rise of transformismo system
    • Political compromises often prioritized elite interests
    • Neglected national development and reform

Church and State in Italy

Papal Opposition and the Roman Question

• Papal States presented significant obstacle to unification
  • Occupied large portion of central Italy
  • Pope Pius IX staunchly opposed Italian nationalism
• "Roman Question" emerged as central issue
  • Italian state sought to incorporate Rome as capital
  • Papacy resisted loss of temporal power
• Capture of Rome in 1870 led to prolonged conflict
  • Pope confined to Vatican
  • Refused to recognize Italian state's authority

Legal and Political Ramifications

• Law of Papal Guarantees (1871) attempted to resolve conflict
  • Granted Pope certain privileges and immunities
  • Rejected by Pius IX, who declared himself "Prisoner of the Vatican"
• Papacy's "Non Expedit" policy created rift between Church and state
  • Forbade Catholics from participating in Italian politics
  • Lasted until early 20th century
• Church-State conflict had far-reaching consequences
  • Shaped development of Italian education system
  • Influenced social policies and cultural norms
  • Affected Italy's diplomatic relations with Catholic countries

Italian Unification: European Impact

Shift in European Balance of Power

• Unified Italy altered European power dynamics
  • Created new middle power in Europe
  • Challenged Austria-Hungary's dominance in region
• Contributed to decline of Concert of Europe system
  • Along with German unification, disrupted old order
  • Led to formation of new alliances and rivalries
• Italy's colonial ambitions increased international tensions
  • Competed for territories in North Africa (Libya, Eritrea)
  • Brought Italy into conflict with France and other powers

Nationalism and Irredentism

• Success of Italian unification inspired other nationalist movements
  • Particularly influential in Balkans (Serbia, Bulgaria)
  • Contributed to destabilization of multi-ethnic empires (Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire)
• Unresolved territorial claims created ongoing tensions
  • Italia Irredenta (unredeemed Italy) referred to Trentino and Trieste regions
  • Fueled irredentist ideology and expansionist ambitions
• Italy's uncertain position in European alliance system
  • Oscillated between Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary) and Entente powers
  • Added element of unpredictability to pre-World War I diplomacy
• Experience of unification influenced development of Italian foreign policy
  • Contributed to irredentist and expansionist ideologies
  • Played role in Italy's involvement in both World Wars