24.3 Brexit: causes, process, and consequences for European integration

Brexit shook the foundations of European integration. The UK's 2016 referendum to leave the EU sparked years of complex negotiations, political turmoil, and economic uncertainty.

The process revealed deep divisions within British society and challenged the EU's unity. Brexit's consequences continue to unfold, impacting trade, politics, and the future of European cooperation.

The Brexit Referendum and Negotiation Process

The 2016 Referendum and Triggering Article 50

Top images from around the web for The 2016 Referendum and Triggering Article 50

• 

  Aftermath of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  12 World Leaders and Their Fountain Pens - LuxiPens™ View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Theresa May set to resign amidst Brexit deadlock : Peoples Dispatch View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Aftermath of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  12 World Leaders and Their Fountain Pens - LuxiPens™ View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for The 2016 Referendum and Triggering Article 50

• 

  Aftermath of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  12 World Leaders and Their Fountain Pens - LuxiPens™ View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Theresa May set to resign amidst Brexit deadlock : Peoples Dispatch View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Aftermath of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  12 World Leaders and Their Fountain Pens - LuxiPens™ View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• 2016 Brexit referendum held on June 23rd resulted in 51.9% voting to leave the EU
• David Cameron resigned as Prime Minister following the referendum result
• Theresa May became Prime Minister in July 2016, pledging to implement Brexit
• Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty triggered on March 29, 2017, starting a two-year countdown for the UK to leave the EU
• Article 50 outlines the process for a member state to withdraw from the EU (includes notification of intention, negotiation period, and terms of withdrawal)

Negotiation Challenges and Leadership Changes

• Theresa May struggled to negotiate a Brexit deal acceptable to Parliament
• May's proposed Withdrawal Agreement rejected three times by MPs between January and March 2019
• Brexit deadline extended multiple times due to lack of agreement
• Theresa May resigned in June 2019 after failing to pass her Brexit deal
• Boris Johnson became Prime Minister in July 2019, promising to deliver Brexit "do or die"
• Johnson negotiated a revised Withdrawal Agreement with the EU in October 2019
• UK general election in December 2019 resulted in a large Conservative majority, paving the way for Brexit

The Withdrawal Agreement and UK's Exit

• Withdrawal Agreement finalized and ratified by both UK and EU parliaments in January 2020
• UK officially left the EU on January 31, 2020, entering a transition period until December 31, 2020
• Withdrawal Agreement covered key issues (citizens' rights, financial settlement, Northern Ireland Protocol)
• Transition period maintained most EU rules while allowing time for negotiations on future relationship
• EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement reached on December 24, 2020, just days before the transition period ended

Key Issues in the Brexit Negotiations

The Irish Border and Northern Ireland Protocol

• Northern Ireland Protocol designed to prevent a hard border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland
• Protocol keeps Northern Ireland aligned with some EU single market rules
• Creates a de facto customs border in the Irish Sea between Great Britain and Northern Ireland
• Controversial among unionists in Northern Ireland who feel it threatens their place in the UK
• Ongoing disputes over implementation and calls for renegotiation of the Protocol

Single Market and Customs Union Access

• UK's decision to leave both the EU single market and customs union central to Brexit negotiations
• Single market allows free movement of goods, services, capital, and people within the EU
• Customs union eliminates internal tariffs and imposes common external tariffs
• Leaving both structures impacts UK-EU trade (introduces customs checks, regulatory divergence)
• UK sought to maintain some benefits while regaining control over laws, borders, and trade policy

Legal Jurisdiction and Freedom of Movement

• European Court of Justice (ECJ) jurisdiction in the UK a key issue in Brexit negotiations
• UK government aimed to end ECJ's direct jurisdiction, seen as a matter of sovereignty
• Compromise reached in some areas (ECJ retains role in Northern Ireland Protocol disputes)
• Freedom of movement ended between UK and EU as part of Brexit
• New points-based immigration system introduced in the UK for EU and non-EU citizens alike
• Changes to immigration policy impact labor markets, education, and cultural exchange

Consequences of Brexit

Economic and Trade Impacts

• EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement established new trading relationship
• Agreement provides for zero tariffs and zero quotas on goods meeting rules of origin requirements
• Non-tariff barriers increased (customs declarations, regulatory checks)
• UK financial services sector lost automatic passporting rights to EU markets
• Short-term economic disruption (supply chain issues, increased bureaucracy for businesses)
• Long-term economic effects still unfolding (changes in foreign direct investment, trade patterns)

Political and Constitutional Ramifications

• Scottish independence movement gained momentum following Brexit
• Scotland voted 62% to remain in the EU in the 2016 referendum
• Scottish National Party calling for a second independence referendum
• Brexit highlighted tensions in the UK's devolution settlement
• Northern Ireland's unique position under the Protocol raised questions about its long-term constitutional status
• Debates over the future of the United Kingdom as a political union intensified

Broader European Integration Dynamics

• Brexit marked the first time a member state left the EU, challenging the idea of ever-closer union
• Sparked debates in other EU countries about their relationship with the bloc
• EU unity strengthened in some ways during Brexit negotiations
• Brexit led to reforms and reflections on the future of European integration
• Shift in balance of power within the EU (France and Germany's influence potentially increased)
• UK's global influence and "soft power" potentially diminished outside the EU framework