🇪🇺European History – 1945 to Present Unit 9 – European Integration and the EEC

Key Events and Timeline

• 1951: European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) established by the Treaty of Paris, signed by France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg
• 1957: Treaties of Rome signed, creating the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom)
  • Aimed to create a common market, customs union, and joint policies for agriculture, transport, and trade
• 1965: Merger Treaty signed, combining the institutions of the ECSC, EEC, and Euratom into a single structure
• 1968: Customs union completed, removing internal tariffs and establishing a common external tariff
• 1973: First enlargement, with Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom joining the EEC
• 1979: First direct elections to the European Parliament held
• 1986: Single European Act signed, setting the goal of establishing a single market by 1992
  • Introduced qualified majority voting in certain areas and increased the powers of the European Parliament

Origins and Motivations

• Post-World War II desire for peace, stability, and economic recovery in Europe
• Aim to prevent future conflicts by fostering economic interdependence and political cooperation
• Influenced by the ideas of European federalists, such as Altiero Spinelli and Jean Monnet, who advocated for a united Europe
• Economic motivations included the desire to create a larger, more efficient market and to enhance Europe's competitiveness in the global economy
• Political motivations involved the need to counterbalance the influence of the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War era
• Aspiration to create a "third way" between American capitalism and Soviet communism
• Belief that integration would lead to increased prosperity, social progress, and a stronger voice for Europe on the international stage

Major Players and Their Roles

• France: Played a key role in initiating European integration, with French statesmen Robert Schuman and Jean Monnet as key architects
  • Sought to control Germany's post-war resurgence and maintain its own influence in Europe
• West Germany: Embraced European integration as a means to regain international legitimacy and rebuild its economy after World War II
  • Chancellor Konrad Adenauer saw integration as a way to anchor West Germany in the Western bloc
• Italy: Supported integration as a way to modernize its economy and overcome political instability
• Benelux countries (Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg): Advocates for economic integration and the creation of a common market
• United Kingdom: Initially skeptical of supranational integration, focusing instead on its Commonwealth ties and "special relationship" with the United States
  • Later joined the EEC in 1973, but maintained a more distant relationship compared to other member states
• European Commission: Served as the executive branch of the EEC, responsible for proposing legislation and enforcing treaties
• European Parliament: Initially had limited powers, but gradually gained more influence over legislation and budgetary matters

Treaty Highlights and Institutional Framework

• Treaty of Paris (1951) established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
  • Created a common market for coal and steel, with a High Authority to oversee its operation
• Treaties of Rome (1957) established the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom)
  • EEC aimed to create a common market, customs union, and joint policies for agriculture, transport, and trade
  • Euratom focused on the peaceful development of nuclear energy
• Institutional framework consisted of the European Commission (executive), Council of Ministers (legislative), European Parliament (initially advisory), and European Court of Justice (judicial)
• Merger Treaty (1965) combined the institutions of the ECSC, EEC, and Euratom into a single structure
• Single European Act (1986) set the goal of establishing a single market by 1992 and introduced qualified majority voting in certain areas
  • Increased the powers of the European Parliament through the "cooperation procedure"

Economic Impact and Policies

• Creation of a customs union and common market led to increased trade and economic growth among member states
• Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) established to support farmers and ensure food security
  • Involved price supports, import tariffs, and export subsidies
• Regional development funds created to address economic disparities between member states and regions
• European Monetary System (EMS) established in 1979 to promote currency stability and convergence
  • Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) limited currency fluctuations among participating countries
• Single market program launched in the 1980s to remove barriers to the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people
• Increased competition and economies of scale benefited consumers and businesses
• However, some criticized the EEC for its bureaucracy, overregulation, and perceived threat to national sovereignty

Political and Social Consequences

• Enhanced political cooperation and coordination among member states on foreign policy and security matters
• Gradual expansion of the European Parliament's powers, increasing democratic legitimacy
• Development of a "European identity" and sense of shared values, such as democracy, human rights, and the rule of law
• Freedom of movement led to increased mobility and cultural exchange among European citizens
• Social policies aimed to improve working conditions, gender equality, and consumer protection
• However, concerns arose about the "democratic deficit" and the perceived lack of accountability in EU decision-making
• Some member states, particularly the UK, remained skeptical of further political integration and the transfer of sovereignty to European institutions

Challenges and Controversies

• "Empty chair crisis" of 1965-66, when France boycotted EEC meetings due to disagreements over CAP and supranational decision-making
  • Resolved by the Luxembourg Compromise, which allowed member states to veto decisions affecting their vital interests
• UK's entry into the EEC in 1973 was controversial, with some British politicians and citizens concerned about the loss of sovereignty and the impact on the UK's global role
• Budget contributions and the "British rebate" remained a source of tension between the UK and other member states
• Common Agricultural Policy criticized for its high costs, overproduction, and negative environmental impact
• Enlargement to include less economically developed countries raised concerns about economic disparities and the strain on EU resources
• Debates over the pace and extent of political integration, with some advocating for a federal "United States of Europe" while others preferred a looser, intergovernmental approach

Legacy and Future Outlook

• European integration through the EEC and its successor, the European Union (EU), has been a major force in shaping post-war Europe
• Contributed to an unprecedented period of peace, stability, and economic growth on the continent
• Served as a model for regional integration and cooperation in other parts of the world
• However, the EU faces ongoing challenges, such as economic disparities, democratic legitimacy, and the rise of Euroscepticism
• The UK's decision to leave the EU ("Brexit") in 2016 highlighted the tensions between national sovereignty and supranational integration
• Future of the EU likely to involve debates over the balance between deepening integration and respecting member state autonomy
• Key issues include reforming EU institutions, addressing economic and social inequalities, and defining Europe's role in an increasingly multipolar world
• Success of the European project will depend on its ability to adapt to new challenges while maintaining the core values and benefits of integration