➿European Art and Civilization Before 1400 Unit 7 – Byzantine Art & Architecture

Historical Context

• Byzantine Empire emerged from the Eastern Roman Empire in the 4th century CE
• Centered around the capital city of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul)
• Lasted until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453
• Influenced by Greco-Roman, Eastern Mediterranean, and Christian traditions
• Served as a bridge between the classical world and the Middle Ages
  • Preserved and transmitted ancient knowledge and artistic traditions
• Experienced periods of political stability and cultural flourishing (Justinian I, Macedonian Renaissance)
• Faced challenges from external threats (Persian Wars, Arab conquests, Crusades)

Key Characteristics of Byzantine Art

• Emphasis on religious themes and symbolism
• Hieratic scale depicts important figures as larger than others
• Stylized, abstract representations rather than naturalistic portrayals
• Use of bright colors, gold leaf, and intricate patterns
• Mosaics and frescoes as dominant art forms
  • Tesserae (small glass or stone cubes) used to create detailed, glittering mosaics
• Illuminated manuscripts featuring ornate initials and miniature illustrations
• Ivory carvings and enamels showcasing exquisite craftsmanship
• Integration of art and architecture in churches and public spaces

Iconic Byzantine Structures

• Hagia Sophia (Istanbul)
  • Originally built as a church, later converted into a mosque
  • Massive central dome supported by pendentives and semi-domes
  • Interior decorated with extensive mosaics and marble
• Church of the Holy Savior in Chora (Istanbul)
• Basilica Cistern (Istanbul)
• Basilica of San Vitale (Ravenna, Italy)
• Monastery of Hosios Loukas (Greece)
• Cathedral of Saint Mark (Venice, Italy)
  • Influenced by Byzantine architecture and decorative elements
• Demonstrates the far-reaching impact of Byzantine art and architecture

Religious Symbolism and Iconography

• Christ Pantocrator (Christ as Almighty Ruler)
  • Depicted in domes or apses, often with a book and raised hand in blessing
• Virgin Mary (Theotokos) as a central figure
  • Orans (praying) pose, Hodegetria (pointing the way), Eleousa (tender mercy)
• Saints, apostles, and prophets represented with halos and specific attributes
• Iconostasis (screen separating nave from sanctuary) adorned with icons
• Crosses, including the Byzantine cross with outwardly flaring ends
• Peacocks as symbols of eternal life and resurrection
• Mandorla (almond-shaped aureole) surrounding Christ or the Virgin Mary
• Represents divine light and celestial realm

Artistic Techniques and Materials

• Mosaics created using tesserae set into plaster or mortar
  • Glass tesserae allowed for greater color range and luminosity
• Frescoes painted on fresh plaster, allowing pigments to bond with the surface
• Tempera painting using egg yolk as a binder for pigments
• Gold leaf applied to create shimmering, ethereal effects
• Cloisonné enamel involving thin metal strips filled with colored glass paste
• Ivory carving showcasing intricate details and delicate modeling
• Illuminated manuscripts using gold, silver, and vibrant pigments on parchment
• Silk textiles with intricate patterns and embroidery

Major Periods and Developments

• Early Byzantine Period (4th-7th centuries)
  • Development of distinct Byzantine style under Justinian I
  • Construction of Hagia Sophia and other major churches
• Iconoclastic Period (8th-9th centuries)
  • Controversy over the use of religious images
  • Destruction and restoration of icons
• Middle Byzantine Period (9th-12th centuries)
  • Macedonian Renaissance marked by artistic and cultural revival
  • Proliferation of illuminated manuscripts and ivory carvings
• Late Byzantine Period (13th-15th centuries)
  • Decline of the Byzantine Empire
  • Continued artistic production despite political and economic challenges
  • Influence on Italian Renaissance artists

Influence on Later Art Movements

• Byzantine art influenced the development of medieval art in Western Europe
  • Transmission of artistic techniques and iconography through trade and cultural exchange
• Romanesque and Gothic art incorporated Byzantine elements
  • Mosaics, frescoes, and architectural features in churches and cathedrals
• Italian Renaissance artists (Duccio, Cimabue, Giotto) drew inspiration from Byzantine art
  • Adapted Byzantine techniques and styles to create new artistic expressions
• Russian and Eastern European art heavily influenced by Byzantine traditions
  • Icon painting, church architecture, and decorative arts
• Neo-Byzantine style in the 19th and early 20th centuries
  • Revival of Byzantine elements in architecture and decorative arts

Notable Artists and Patrons

• Emperor Justinian I (r. 527-565)
  • Patron of the arts, commissioned the construction of Hagia Sophia
• Empress Theodora (c. 500-548)
  • Influential figure in Byzantine politics and culture
  • Depicted in the famous mosaic in the Church of San Vitale, Ravenna
• Master mosaicists and fresco painters (often anonymous)
  • Responsible for the creation of masterpieces in churches and palaces
• Illuminators and manuscript painters (e.g., Master of the Paris Psalter)
• Ivory carvers and enamel artists (e.g., Master of the Harbaville Triptych)
• Patrons from the imperial family, aristocracy, and the Church
  • Commissioned artworks and supported artistic production
• Workshops and guilds specialized in various artistic techniques and materials