🙈Evolutionary Biology Unit 4 – Genetic Evolution: DNA, Mutations & Heredity

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Alleles refer to different versions of a gene that can result in variations in inherited characteristics
• Genotype describes an organism's genetic makeup, while phenotype refers to the physical expression of those genes
• Homozygous individuals inherit two identical alleles for a particular gene, while heterozygous individuals inherit two different alleles
• Dominant alleles mask the expression of recessive alleles when present in a heterozygous genotype
• Codominance occurs when both alleles in a heterozygous genotype are expressed equally in the phenotype (blood types AB)
• Pleiotropy describes a single gene influencing multiple phenotypic traits (sickle cell anemia affects red blood cells, spleen, and kidneys)
• Polygenic traits are characteristics influenced by multiple genes working together (height, skin color)
• Epistasis refers to the interaction between genes at different loci, where one gene influences the expression of another

DNA Structure and Function

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the hereditary material found in nearly all living organisms
  • Composed of four nucleotide bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C)
  • Bases pair together (A with T, G with C) to form the rungs of the DNA ladder
• DNA has a double helix structure, with two complementary strands wound around each other
• The sugar-phosphate backbone provides structural support and connects the nucleotide bases
• Genes are specific sequences of DNA that encode instructions for making proteins
  • Proteins perform various functions in the body and contribute to observable traits
• DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes an exact copy of itself during cell division
  • Ensures genetic information is passed down accurately from parent cells to daughter cells
• DNA undergoes transcription and translation to produce functional proteins
  • Transcription creates a complementary RNA strand from the DNA template
  • Translation uses the RNA strand to synthesize amino acids, which fold into proteins

Mechanisms of Genetic Inheritance

• Mendelian inheritance describes the passing of traits from parents to offspring following specific patterns
  • Law of Segregation states that allele pairs separate during gamete formation, with each gamete receiving one allele
  • Law of Independent Assortment explains that alleles for different genes assort independently during gamete formation
• Punnett squares are used to predict the probability of offspring inheriting specific genotypes and phenotypes
• Incomplete dominance results in a blending of traits in the heterozygous phenotype (pink flowers in snapdragons)
• Sex-linked traits are determined by genes located on the sex chromosomes (X and Y)
  • X-linked recessive disorders (hemophilia) are more common in males who inherit the allele on their single X chromosome
• Mitochondrial DNA is inherited exclusively from the maternal line, as egg cells contribute mitochondria to the zygote
• Epigenetic modifications, such as DNA methylation and histone modifications, can influence gene expression without altering the DNA sequence itself

Types of Mutations and Their Effects

• Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence that can alter gene function and phenotype
• Point mutations involve the substitution, insertion, or deletion of a single nucleotide base
  • Silent mutations do not change the amino acid sequence and have no effect on protein function
  • Missense mutations result in a different amino acid being incorporated, potentially altering protein function
  • Nonsense mutations introduce a premature stop codon, leading to a truncated and often non-functional protein
• Frameshift mutations occur when the number of inserted or deleted bases is not divisible by three, shifting the reading frame and altering the amino acid sequence
• Chromosomal mutations involve larger-scale changes to the structure or number of chromosomes
  • Duplications and deletions can alter gene dosage and disrupt normal gene function
  • Inversions and translocations rearrange genetic material, potentially disrupting gene regulation or creating fusion proteins
• Aneuploidy refers to an abnormal number of chromosomes, such as trisomy 21 in Down syndrome
• Polyploidy is the presence of more than two complete sets of chromosomes, which can lead to increased genetic diversity and novel phenotypes in plants

Natural Selection and Genetic Variation

• Natural selection is the process by which organisms with favorable traits survive and reproduce more successfully in a given environment
  • Differential survival and reproduction lead to changes in allele frequencies over generations
• Genetic variation arises from mutations, recombination during meiosis, and independent assortment of chromosomes
  • Provides the raw material upon which natural selection can act
• Fitness refers to an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in its environment
  • Genotypes that confer higher fitness are more likely to be passed on to future generations
• Directional selection favors extreme phenotypes at one end of a trait spectrum, shifting the population mean (antibiotic resistance in bacteria)
• Stabilizing selection favors intermediate phenotypes, reducing variation around the population mean (birth weight in humans)
• Disruptive selection favors extreme phenotypes at both ends of a trait spectrum, leading to a bimodal distribution (beak size in finches)
• Sexual selection occurs when traits that enhance mating success are favored, even if they do not directly improve survival (peacock tail feathers)

Evolutionary Processes in Populations

• Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium describes a population in which allele and genotype frequencies remain constant across generations
  • Assumes no mutation, migration, genetic drift, or selection
  • Deviations from equilibrium indicate evolutionary forces at work
• Gene flow is the transfer of alleles between populations through migration and interbreeding
  • Can introduce new genetic variation and counteract the effects of genetic drift
• Genetic drift is the random change in allele frequencies due to chance events in small populations
  • Bottleneck effect occurs when a population undergoes a drastic reduction in size, leading to a loss of genetic diversity
  • Founder effect arises when a small group of individuals establishes a new population, carrying only a subset of the original population's genetic variation
• Speciation is the formation of new species through reproductive isolation and divergence from a common ancestor
  • Allopatric speciation occurs when populations become geographically isolated and accumulate genetic differences over time
  • Sympatric speciation takes place within a single geographic area, often driven by ecological or behavioral factors that limit gene flow

Applications in Modern Genetics

• Genetic engineering involves the direct manipulation of an organism's DNA to introduce desired traits or remove undesirable ones
  • Recombinant DNA technology allows the insertion of genes from one species into another (insulin production in bacteria)
  • CRISPR-Cas9 is a precise gene-editing tool that can make targeted changes to DNA sequences
• Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have had their DNA altered through genetic engineering techniques
  • Agricultural applications include crops with increased yield, pest resistance, and nutritional content
  • Medical applications involve the production of therapeutic proteins and the development of gene therapies
• Personalized medicine tailors treatments to an individual's genetic profile
  • Pharmacogenomics studies how genetic variations influence drug response and helps optimize medication dosing and selection
• Forensic genetics uses DNA evidence to identify individuals, establish familial relationships, and solve crimes
  • Short tandem repeats (STRs) are highly variable DNA sequences used in DNA fingerprinting
• Ancient DNA analysis allows the study of genetic material from long-deceased organisms, providing insights into evolutionary history and population dynamics

Challenges and Future Directions

• Ethical concerns surround the use of genetic information, particularly in areas such as privacy, discrimination, and designer babies
  • Genetic counseling helps individuals understand and make informed decisions about genetic testing and its implications
• Epigenetic inheritance, the transmission of epigenetic modifications across generations, challenges traditional views of inheritance and evolution
  • Environmental factors can influence epigenetic patterns, potentially leading to heritable changes in gene expression without altering the DNA sequence
• The role of non-coding DNA, which does not encode proteins, in gene regulation and evolution is an active area of research
  • Regulatory elements, such as promoters and enhancers, control gene expression and contribute to phenotypic diversity
• Integrating genomic data with other biological disciplines, such as proteomics and metabolomics, provides a more comprehensive understanding of organismal function and evolution
• Advances in sequencing technologies and bioinformatics enable the study of entire genomes and the identification of complex genetic interactions
  • Comparative genomics allows the identification of conserved and divergent genetic elements across species
  • Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) help pinpoint genetic variants associated with complex traits and diseases
• Developing effective strategies for managing and preserving genetic diversity in endangered species is crucial for conservation efforts
• Exploring the potential of gene drives, which can rapidly spread a desired gene through a population, for controlling disease vectors and invasive species while considering ecological consequences