🧾Financial Accounting I Unit 13 – Long–Term Liabilities

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Long-term liabilities represent obligations that a company expects to pay off in more than one year
• Bonds are a common type of long-term liability involving borrowing money from investors in exchange for regular interest payments and repayment of principal at maturity
• Notes payable are written promises to pay a specific amount on a certain date, often used for purchases of equipment or property
• Mortgages are long-term loans secured by real estate, with the property serving as collateral
• Leases are contractual agreements where a lessee pays to use an asset owned by the lessor for a specified period
  • Operating leases are for short-term use and not recorded on the balance sheet
  • Finance leases are long-term and treated as an asset and liability on the balance sheet
• Present value calculations discount future cash flows to their value in today's dollars, considering the time value of money
• Effective interest rate is the true cost of borrowing, taking into account any discount or premium on the issuance of debt

Types of Long-Term Liabilities

• Bonds are a major source of long-term financing, allowing companies to borrow funds from a large pool of investors
  • Coupon bonds make regular interest payments (coupon payments) to bondholders
  • Zero-coupon bonds do not pay interest but are issued at a discount and redeemed at face value upon maturity
• Notes payable are often used for specific purchases and may be secured by the assets acquired (equipment, vehicles)
• Mortgages are used to finance the purchase of real estate, with the property serving as collateral for the loan
• Deferred tax liabilities arise from temporary differences between accounting and tax treatment of certain items (depreciation)
• Pension obligations represent the company's long-term commitment to provide retirement benefits to employees
• Lease liabilities result from finance leases, where the lessee records the present value of future lease payments as a liability
• Contingent liabilities are potential obligations that depend on future events (pending lawsuits, product warranties)

Bonds: Issuance and Valuation

• Bonds are issued at face value (par value), at a discount, or at a premium depending on market conditions and the coupon rate
  • Discount on bonds payable represents the difference between the face value and the issuance price when bonds are sold below par
  • Premium on bonds payable arises when bonds are issued above face value
• Coupon rate is the stated interest rate on the bond, determining the periodic interest payments
• Market interest rates influence the issuance price of bonds and their subsequent valuation
  • When market rates are higher than the coupon rate, bonds sell at a discount
  • When market rates are lower than the coupon rate, bonds sell at a premium
• Effective interest method amortizes bond discounts or premiums over the life of the bond, ensuring interest expense reflects the effective yield
• Callable bonds give the issuer the right to redeem the bonds before maturity, typically when market interest rates fall significantly below the coupon rate

Notes Payable and Mortgages

• Notes payable are formal written promises to pay a specific sum of money on a certain date or dates
  • Promissory notes are a common form of notes payable
  • Terms include the principal amount, interest rate, and repayment schedule
• Mortgages are long-term loans secured by real estate, with the property serving as collateral
  • Mortgage payments consist of both principal and interest components
  • Failure to make payments can result in foreclosure, where the lender seizes the property
• Interest on notes payable and mortgages is recorded as an expense in the period incurred
• Principal payments reduce the outstanding liability on the balance sheet
• Disclosures include the terms, interest rates, and collateral for notes payable and mortgages

Leases and Lease Accounting

• Leases are contractual agreements where the lessee pays to use an asset owned by the lessor for a specified period
• Operating leases are for short-term use and do not transfer ownership rights
  • Lease payments are expensed as incurred
  • The leased asset and related liability are not recorded on the balance sheet
• Finance leases (capital leases) are long-term and treated as an asset purchase and financing arrangement
  • The present value of future lease payments is recorded as an asset and a liability
  • Lease payments are allocated between interest expense and principal reduction
• Lease classification criteria consider the lease term relative to the asset's useful life, presence of bargain purchase options, and transfer of ownership
• Recent accounting standards (ASC 842, IFRS 16) require most leases to be recognized on the balance sheet as right-of-use assets and lease liabilities
• Lease disclosures include the terms, payment amounts, and classification of leases

Reporting Long-Term Liabilities

• Long-term liabilities are reported on the balance sheet, typically under a separate heading below current liabilities
• Bonds payable are reported at their carrying value, which is the face value adjusted for any unamortized discount or premium
  • Unamortized bond discounts or premiums are presented as a direct deduction from or addition to the bond liability
• Notes payable and mortgages are reported at their principal amount outstanding
  • Current portion of long-term debt is separated and reported under current liabilities
• Lease liabilities arising from finance leases are reported as a long-term liability, with the current portion separately presented
• Disclosures in the notes to the financial statements provide additional information about the terms, interest rates, and collateral of long-term liabilities
• Maturity schedules present the principal amounts due in each of the next five years and the total amount due thereafter

Financial Statement Impact

• Long-term liabilities impact both the balance sheet and the income statement
• On the balance sheet, long-term liabilities increase total liabilities and decrease stockholders' equity
  • Higher levels of debt can increase financial leverage and risk
• Interest expense on long-term liabilities reduces net income on the income statement
  • Interest on bonds payable is recorded using the effective interest method, which may differ from the coupon rate
  • Interest on notes payable and mortgages is expensed as incurred
• Principal payments on long-term liabilities reduce the liability on the balance sheet but do not affect the income statement
• Finance lease liabilities impact the balance sheet and income statement differently from operating leases
  • Finance leases result in an asset and liability on the balance sheet, with depreciation and interest expense recognized on the income statement
  • Operating lease payments are expensed as incurred on the income statement, with no balance sheet impact
• Debt-to-equity and interest coverage ratios are key metrics used to assess a company's leverage and ability to service its debt obligations

Real-World Applications

• Companies use long-term liabilities to finance capital investments, expansions, and other strategic initiatives
  • Bonds are commonly issued by large corporations and governments to raise significant amounts of capital
  • Notes payable and mortgages are used to fund specific asset purchases or real estate acquisitions
• Leasing is a popular alternative to purchasing assets, allowing companies to use equipment or property without large upfront investments
  • Airlines often lease aircraft to maintain flexibility in their fleet and reduce capital expenditures
  • Retailers may lease store locations to expand into new markets without purchasing real estate
• Managers must carefully consider the trade-offs between debt and equity financing, balancing the benefits of leverage with the risks of financial distress
• Investors and creditors analyze a company's long-term liabilities to assess its financial stability, credit risk, and ability to generate future cash flows
  • Credit rating agencies (Standard & Poor's, Moody's) assign ratings to bond issuers based on their creditworthiness and ability to meet debt obligations
• Effective management of long-term liabilities involves monitoring debt levels, ensuring timely payments, and maintaining compliance with debt covenants
  • Refinancing or restructuring debt can help companies take advantage of lower interest rates or improve their debt maturity profile
  • Debt-to-equity swaps or convertible bonds can be used to reduce leverage and increase financial flexibility