1.3 The Balkans and the Ottoman Empire

The Balkans and Ottoman Empire were powder kegs in early 20th century Europe. Ethnic tensions, nationalist movements, and imperial ambitions created a volatile mix in the region. The decline of Ottoman power left a vacuum that neighboring states and European powers rushed to fill.

These dynamics set the stage for broader conflict. The Balkan Wars showcased the region's instability and militarization, while also heightening tensions between major powers like Austria-Hungary and Russia. This volatile situation would soon ignite into World War I.

Balkan Tensions in the Early 20th Century

Ethnic Diversity and Nationalist Aspirations

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• Complex mosaic of ethnic groups populated the Balkan region (Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bulgarians, Albanians, Greeks, Turks)
  • Overlapping territorial claims created friction between groups
  • Historical migrations and conquests led to intermingled populations
• Nationalism emerged as a powerful force driving political agendas
  • Various ethnic groups sought independence or unification with kin in neighboring states
  • National identities often trumped religious or linguistic ties
• "Greater Serbia" concept promoted by Serbian nationalists
  • Aimed to unite all Serbs under one state
  • Conflicted with interests of other ethnic groups and neighboring powers
  • Similar irredentist movements existed among other Balkan nationalities (Greater Bulgaria, Greater Albania)

Imperial Interests and Regional Instability

• Austro-Hungarian Empire's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908 heightened tensions
  • Serbia hoped to incorporate these territories into its own state
  • Annexation bypassed international agreements, angering other powers
• Russia's pan-Slavic ideology supported Balkan Slavic nations
  • Particularly close ties with Serbia developed
  • Contributed to regional instability and rivalry with Austria-Hungary
  • Russian support emboldened smaller Slavic states to challenge Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian control
• Ottoman Empire's weakening grip on European territories created a power vacuum
  • Balkan states and European powers sought to exploit the situation
  • "Turkey in Europe" became a focal point for territorial ambitions

Secret Societies and Subversive Activities

• Black Hand in Serbia played a significant role in promoting nationalist agendas
  • Engaged in subversive activities across borders
  • Infiltrated government and military circles
  • Later implicated in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
• Other nationalist organizations emerged throughout the Balkans
  • Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) fought for Macedonian autonomy or independence
  • Albanian Committee for the Liberation of Albania worked towards Albanian statehood

Ottoman Decline and European Power

Economic and Political Challenges

• Ottoman Empire experienced prolonged decline, earning moniker "sick man of Europe"
  • Loss of territory in Balkans reduced European footprint (Greece independence in 1830, autonomy for Serbia, Montenegro, Romania)
  • Remaining territories faced internal unrest and external pressure
• Economic difficulties hindered modernization efforts
  • Burdensome debt to European powers limited fiscal flexibility
  • Outdated feudal system impeded economic development
  • Attempts at reform often met with resistance from conservative elements
• Young Turk Revolution of 1908 attempted reforms but led to further instability
  • Promised constitutional government and modernization
  • Ultimately increased ethnic tensions, particularly with non-Turkish minorities
  • Centralization efforts alienated Arab provinces and Balkan Christians

Power Vacuum and European Intervention

• European powers sought to fill the vacuum left by Ottoman decline
  • Russia and Austria-Hungary competed for influence in the Balkans
  • Britain and France increased their presence in the Mediterranean
• Ottoman weakening control over European territories created opportunities for Balkan states
  • Formation of the Balkan League (Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Bulgaria)
  • Balkan states aimed to expand at Ottoman expense
• European powers developed conflicting interests in the region
  • Russia supported Slavic and Orthodox Christian states
  • Austria-Hungary sought to prevent growth of Slavic power on its borders
  • Britain and France worked to maintain balance and protect their Mediterranean interests

Strategic Realignments

• Decline of Ottoman naval power altered Mediterranean strategic balance
  • British acquisition of Cyprus (1878) and Egypt (1882) strengthened its position
  • French influence grew in North Africa (Algeria, Tunisia)
• Ottoman Empire forced to seek new alliances
  • Turned to Germany for military and economic support
  • German-built Baghdad Railway project increased German influence in the Middle East
• Balkan states maneuvered between great powers for support
  • Serbia aligned closely with Russia
  • Bulgaria vacillated between Russia and Austria-Hungary
  • Greece sought British and French backing

Balkan Wars: A Prelude to World War I

First Balkan War and Ottoman Defeat

• Balkan League (Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Bulgaria) formed to challenge Ottoman rule
  • Coordinated military action against Ottoman forces in Europe
  • Supported by Russia, though not directly involved
• Ottoman Empire decisively defeated, losing most European territories
  • Treaty of London (1913) formalized Ottoman losses
  • Albania granted independence to prevent Serbian access to Adriatic Sea
• War demonstrated effectiveness of Balkan military forces
  • Use of modern tactics and weapons surprised observers
  • Boosted confidence of Balkan states in their military capabilities

Second Balkan War and Regional Realignment

• Bulgaria, dissatisfied with territorial gains, attacked former allies
  • Sought larger share of Macedonia
  • Miscalculated ability to fight on multiple fronts
• Bulgaria defeated by combined forces of Serbia, Greece, Romania, and Ottoman Empire
  • Treaty of Bucharest (1913) redistributed territories
  • Macedonia divided between Serbia and Greece
  • Bulgaria lost most gains from First Balkan War
• War revealed instability of alliances and willingness to use force
  • Foreshadowed larger conflicts to come
  • Demonstrated volatility of Balkan politics

Consequences and Path to World War

• Balkan Wars significantly weakened Ottoman Empire
  • Further destabilized the region
  • Created new sources of tension among Great Powers
• Serbia's territorial expansion and increased prestige heightened tensions with Austria-Hungary
  • Serbian ambitions seen as direct threat to Austro-Hungarian empire
  • Intensified rivalry between Serbia and Austria-Hungary
• Unresolved territorial disputes and ethnic tensions persisted
  • Macedonia remained a contentious area
  • Albanian borders dissatisfied neighboring states
• Militarization of Balkan societies increased
  • Armies gained combat experience
  • Public opinion more accepting of military solutions to disputes
• Great Power involvement set precedents for future interventions
  • Russia's support of Serbia strengthened their alliance
  • Austria-Hungary's frustration with Serbian expansion grew