1.1 European Alliances and Balance of Power

European alliances and balance of power were crucial factors leading to World War I. Major powers formed complex defensive pacts, creating a web of obligations that increased tensions and the likelihood of widespread conflict.

The balance of power theory aimed for stability through equal distribution of power among nations. However, challenges like German unification and colonial expansion strained this system, ultimately contributing to the outbreak of war in 1914.

European Alliances in the Early 20th Century

Formation of Major Alliances

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• Triple Alliance formed in 1882
  • Members included Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy
  • Defensive pact against potential aggression from France or Russia
  • Aimed to maintain balance of power in Europe
• Franco-Russian Alliance established in 1894
  • Military agreement between France and Russia
  • Countered growing power of Germany and the Triple Alliance
  • Provided mutual support in case of German aggression
• Entente Cordiale signed in 1904
  • Agreement between Britain and France
  • Marked significant shift in European diplomacy
  • Ended centuries of Anglo-French rivalry (Hundred Years' War, Napoleonic Wars)
  • Isolated Germany diplomatically
• Triple Entente formed in 1907
  • Brought together Britain, France, and Russia
  • Effectively encircled the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary)
  • Created a counterbalance to the Triple Alliance

Implications of Alliance Systems

• Complex web of diplomatic and military obligations
  • Increased likelihood of localized conflicts escalating into wider European wars
  • Example: Balkan conflicts had potential to draw in major powers
• Secret nature of many alliance clauses
  • Contributed to mutual suspicion among European powers
  • Led to arms race (naval buildup between Britain and Germany)
  • Further destabilized the continent
• Reduced diplomatic flexibility
  • Made peaceful resolution of conflicts more challenging
  • Example: July Crisis of 1914 rapidly escalated due to alliance commitments
• Created atmosphere of tension and mistrust
  • Heightened nationalism and militarism across Europe
  • Contributed to the outbreak of World War I in 1914

Balance of Power in Europe

Concept and Maintenance

• Balance of power theory
  • Stability achieved when power distributed relatively equally among major states
  • Prevents single nation from dominating others
  • Maintained through military alliances, territorial adjustments, and diplomatic negotiations
• Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
  • Established framework for balance of power
  • Influenced European diplomacy throughout 19th and early 20th centuries
  • Aimed to prevent future French hegemony in Europe
• Factors affecting balance of power
  • Decline of Ottoman Empire (Sick Man of Europe)
  • Rise of unified Germany in 1871
  • Naval arms race (construction of dreadnoughts)
  • Colonial expansion (Scramble for Africa)

Challenges and Criticisms

• Decline of Ottoman Empire
  • Created power vacuum in Balkans
  • Led to competition among European powers for influence in the region
• German unification and rise
  • Altered existing balance of power in Europe
  • Challenged established powers like Britain and France
• Naval arms race
  • Britain and Germany competed to build most powerful navy
  • Exemplified by construction of dreadnoughts
  • Directly challenged existing balance of power
• Colonial expansion
  • European powers sought parity through acquisition of overseas territories
  • Led to conflicts in Africa and Asia (Fashoda Incident, Moroccan Crises)
• Criticisms of balance of power concept
  • Increased instability by encouraging arms races
  • Promoted aggressive policies and territorial expansion
  • Ultimately contributed to outbreak of World War I

Shifting Alliances Leading to World War I

Key Diplomatic Developments

• Reinsurance Treaty of 1887
  • Agreement between Germany and Russia
  • Temporarily maintained cordial relations between two powers
  • Lapse in 1890 pushed Russia towards alliance with France
• Weakening of Triple Alliance
  • Italy's commitment diminished over time
  • Conflicts with Austria-Hungary over territorial claims in Balkans
  • Led to Italy's eventual defection to Entente in 1915
• Moroccan Crises (1905 and 1911)
  • Tested strength of Entente Cordiale
  • Further solidified Anglo-French cooperation against German expansionism
  • Increased international tensions and mistrust
• Bosnian Crisis (1908-1909)
  • Strained relations between Austria-Hungary and Russia
  • Pushed Russia closer to Serbia
  • Intensified Balkan tensions and rivalries

Impact on International Relations

• Balkan Wars (1912-1913)
  • Reshaped alliances in Southeastern Europe
  • Bulgaria shifted away from Russian influence towards Central Powers
  • Increased instability in the region
• Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914)
  • Triggered cascade of alliance obligations
  • Rapidly escalated local conflict into continental war
  • Demonstrated interconnectedness of European alliances
• Environment of mistrust and uncertainty
  • Complex nature of shifting alliances made diplomatic assessments difficult
  • Diplomats struggled to accurately predict consequences of their actions
  • Contributed to rapid escalation of July Crisis into World War I
• Long-term consequences
  • Reshaped global power dynamics
  • Led to collapse of empires (Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, Russian)
  • Set stage for future conflicts (World War II, Cold War)