2.2 The July Crisis and Declarations of War

The July Crisis of 1914 was a powder keg of tensions, alliances, and miscalculations. It started with an assassination and spiraled into a series of ultimatums, mobilizations, and declarations of war that engulfed Europe in conflict.

Key players like Austria-Hungary, Serbia, Russia, and Germany made crucial decisions that escalated the crisis. Failed diplomacy, complex alliances, and military plans like the Schlieffen Plan all contributed to the rapid outbreak of World War I.

Events of the July Crisis

Assassination and Ultimatum

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• Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip (a Bosnian Serb nationalist) triggered July Crisis
• Austria-Hungary issued ultimatum to Serbia on July 23, 1914, with intentionally harsh demands designed for rejection
• Serbia's response on July 25, 1914, accepted most demands but rejected others led Austria-Hungary to break diplomatic relations
• Russia began mobilizing forces on July 25, 1914, in support of Serbia escalated tensions between Great Powers
• Germany issued "blank check" to Austria-Hungary on July 5, 1914, assured unconditional support in potential war with Serbia

Declarations of War and Failed Diplomacy

• Rapid succession of war declarations from July 28 to August 4, 1914
  • Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia
  • Germany declared war on Russia and France
  • Britain declared war on Germany
• Diplomatic efforts to prevent war failed
  • British-led "halt in Belgrade" proposal rejected
  • Willy-Nicky telegrams between Kaiser Wilhelm II and Tsar Nicholas II unsuccessful
• Serbia's Prime Minister Nikola Pašić crafted careful response to Austro-Hungarian ultimatum
  • Aimed to appear conciliatory while preserving Serbian sovereignty
  • Highlighted complex diplomatic maneuvering during crisis

Alliance System and Escalation

Major Alliances and Their Impact

• Triple Alliance formed in 1882 (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy)
• Triple Entente established by 1907 (Britain, France, Russia)
• Alliance systems created European balance of power but increased risk of localized conflicts expanding
• Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894 obligated mutual support if attacked by Germany or Austria-Hungary
• Britain's "moral obligation" to defend Belgian neutrality based on 1839 Treaty of London
• Serbia-Russia alliance formalized in 1913 ensured Russian support during crisis

Alliance Complications and Escalation

• Italy's initial neutrality despite Triple Alliance membership highlighted complex alliance obligations
• Web of alliances created domino effect
  • Actions of one nation triggered responses from allies
  • Rapidly expanded scope of conflict
• Alliance obligations often outweighed diplomatic considerations
  • Russian support for Serbia despite lack of formal Triple Entente membership
  • French support for Russia during July 1914 state visit to St. Petersburg
• Balance of power shifted as alliances activated
  • Localized Austro-Serbian conflict expanded to continental war

Decision-Making in the July Crisis

Monarchs and Political Leaders

• Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary saw crisis as opportunity to reassert dominance in Balkans
• German Kaiser Wilhelm II's vacillating stance reflected complex German leadership decision-making
  • Alternated between calls for restraint and support for Austria-Hungary
• Russian Tsar Nicholas II ordered general mobilization on July 30, 1914
  • Influenced by military advisors and desire to support Serbia
  • Risked war with Germany
• French leaders encouraged Russian resolve
  • President Raymond Poincaré and Prime Minister René Viviani firmly supported Russia during state visit

Diplomatic and Military Influences

• British Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Grey's mediation attempts hampered by unclear commitments
  • Britain's obligations to France and Russia uncertain
  • British cabinet held divided opinions on intervention
• Military leaders often outweighed diplomatic considerations
  • German Chief of General Staff Helmuth von Moltke pushed for swift action
  • Russian Minister of War Vladimir Sukhomlinov advocated for mobilization
• Time pressure influenced decision-making
  • Mobilization timetables created urgency
  • Fear of being caught unprepared accelerated military preparations

Schlieffen Plan and War's Outbreak

Schlieffen Plan Overview

• Developed by Alfred von Schlieffen in 1905, modified by Helmuth von Moltke the Younger
• Primary German war strategy for two-front war against France and Russia
• Called for rapid defeat of France through Belgium before Russia fully mobilized
• Required violation of Belgian neutrality potentially drawing Britain into war
• Time-sensitive nature pressured German military leaders to act quickly once Russia began mobilizing

Impact on Crisis and War Outbreak

• Plan's reliance on speed and timing influenced Germany's July 31, 1914 ultimatum to Russia
  • Demanded halt to mobilization within 12 hours
• Inflexibility of Schlieffen Plan limited Germany's diplomatic options during crisis
• Plan's assumption of British neutrality proved flawed
  • Invasion of Belgium provided Britain with casus belli to enter war
• Implementation of Schlieffen Plan on August 1, 1914, marked transition from diplomatic crisis to war
  • German troops began moving towards Belgian border
• Plan's execution necessitated rapid chain of war declarations
  • Contributed to swift expansion of conflict across Europe