2.3 Development of public education in the United States

The development of public education in the United States has been a journey of expansion and reform. From the Common School Movement to compulsory education laws, the nation has strived to provide universal access to learning for all children.

Higher education also saw significant growth through land-grant colleges and normal schools. Meanwhile, efforts to address equity issues, like desegregation and special education, have shaped the evolving landscape of American education.

Expansion of Public Education

Common School Movement and Compulsory Education

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• Common school movement advocated for free, universal education in the 19th century
  • Led by reformers like Horace Mann who believed education could create social equality
  • Emphasized standardized curriculum, teacher training, and public funding
• Compulsory education laws mandated school attendance for children
  • Massachusetts passed the first law in 1852, requiring children to attend school
  • By 1918, all states had compulsory education laws in place
  • Aimed to increase literacy rates and prepare children for citizenship
• Common schools faced challenges including:
  • Limited funding and resources
  • Resistance from some communities who viewed education as a private matter
  • Debates over curriculum content and religious instruction

Higher Education Expansion

• Land-grant colleges established through the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890
  • Provided federal land to states for the creation of public universities
  • Focused on practical education in agriculture, science, and engineering
  • Examples include Cornell University and the University of California system
• Normal schools developed to train teachers for the expanding public education system
  • First normal school in the U.S. opened in Lexington, Massachusetts in 1839
  • Curriculum included pedagogy, subject matter knowledge, and classroom management
  • Many normal schools later evolved into state colleges and universities (San Jose State University)

Equity and Access

Segregation and Desegregation in Education

• Segregation in schools enforced through Jim Crow laws in the South
  • "Separate but equal" doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
  • African American schools often received less funding and resources
• Brown v. Board of Education (1954) overturned Plessy v. Ferguson
  • Supreme Court ruled that separate educational facilities were inherently unequal
  • Sparked the desegregation of public schools across the United States
• Desegregation efforts faced significant resistance
  • Little Rock Nine incident in Arkansas (1957) required federal intervention
  • Busing programs implemented to integrate schools across district lines
• Ongoing challenges to achieve racial equity in education persist
  • De facto segregation due to housing patterns
  • Achievement gaps between racial and socioeconomic groups

Special Education and Inclusive Practices

• Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) passed in 1975
  • Mandated free and appropriate public education for students with disabilities
  • Required individualized education programs (IEPs) for eligible students
• Least restrictive environment (LRE) principle promoted inclusion
  • Students with disabilities educated alongside peers without disabilities when possible
  • Spectrum of placements from full inclusion to separate specialized schools
• Challenges in special education implementation include:
  • Adequate funding for services and accommodations
  • Teacher training in inclusive practices
  • Balancing individual needs with classroom dynamics

Educational Reforms

Charter Schools and School Choice

• Charter schools emerged as an alternative to traditional public schools
  • Publicly funded but independently operated
  • First charter school law passed in Minnesota in 1991
  • Aimed to provide innovation and competition in education
• Charter school characteristics include:
  • Greater autonomy in curriculum and teaching methods
  • Accountability through performance contracts with authorizing agencies
  • Open enrollment policies, often using lotteries for admission
• Debates surrounding charter schools focus on:
  • Impact on funding for traditional public schools
  • Effectiveness in improving student achievement
  • Potential for increased segregation or selectivity

No Child Left Behind Act and Accountability Measures

• No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) signed into law in 2001
  • Reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
  • Aimed to improve educational outcomes for all students, especially disadvantaged groups
• Key provisions of NCLB included:
  • Annual standardized testing in reading and math for grades 3-8
  • Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) requirements for schools and districts
  • Highly qualified teacher mandates
• Consequences of NCLB implementation:
  • Increased focus on test preparation and data-driven instruction
  • Sanctions for schools failing to meet AYP targets
  • Critiques of narrowed curriculum and teaching to the test
• Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) replaced NCLB in 2015
  • Maintained annual testing requirements but gave states more flexibility in accountability measures
  • Emphasized college and career readiness standards