5.2 The African American Struggle for Equality

The African American Civil Rights Movement was a pivotal era in U.S. history. From the 1950s to the 1960s, activists fought against racial discrimination and segregation through nonviolent protests, legal challenges, and grassroots organizing.

Key milestones like Brown v. Board of Education and the Montgomery Bus Boycott paved the way for landmark legislation. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 were major victories, banning discrimination and protecting voting rights for African Americans.

The African American Civil Rights Movement

Milestones of civil rights movement

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• Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
  • Landmark Supreme Court decision declared segregated public schools unconstitutional
  • Overturned Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) and the "separate but equal" doctrine that had allowed racial segregation
• Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956)
  • Initiated by Rosa Parks' refusal to give up her seat to a white passenger on a segregated bus
  • Organized by Martin Luther King Jr. and the Montgomery Improvement Association
  • Resulted in the desegregation of Montgomery's public transportation system after a year-long boycott
• Little Rock Nine (1957)
  • Nine African American students enrolled in the previously all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas amid intense opposition
  • Required federal intervention and protection from the U.S. Army to ensure their safety and access to education
• Greensboro Sit-Ins (1960)
  • Series of nonviolent protests against segregated lunch counters initiated by four African American college students in Greensboro, North Carolina
  • Sparked a wave of similar sit-ins across the Southern United States, leading to the desegregation of many public facilities
• Freedom Rides (1961)
  • Activists challenged racial segregation in interstate bus travel by riding buses through the South
  • Faced violence, arrests, and bus burnings, but ultimately led to the desegregation of interstate transportation facilities
• March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom (1963)
  • Massive demonstration attended by over 200,000 people in Washington, D.C., where Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his iconic "I Have a Dream" speech
  • Helped build momentum for the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin
• Selma to Montgomery Marches (1965)
  • Series of three marches led by Martin Luther King Jr. and other civil rights leaders to advocate for voting rights and protest the violence against African American voters
  • Contributed to the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which banned discriminatory voting practices and provided federal oversight of elections
• Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. (1968)
  • King's assassination in Memphis, Tennessee, sparked a wave of riots and unrest in cities across the United States
  • His legacy as a champion of nonviolent resistance and racial equality continued to inspire the civil rights movement and the fight for social justice
• Affirmative Action (1960s-present)
  • Policies and programs designed to increase representation and opportunities for underrepresented groups, particularly in education and employment
  • Controversial and often challenged in court (Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, 1978), but remains a key tool for promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion
• Black Lives Matter Movement (2013-present)
  • Decentralized social movement founded in response to the acquittal of George Zimmerman in the shooting death of Trayvon Martin
  • Advocates for racial justice, police reform, and an end to systemic racism and violence against African Americans
  • Gained global prominence following high-profile cases of police brutality (Michael Brown, Eric Garner, George Floyd) and has become a major force in contemporary social and political activism

Government's role in civil rights

• Executive Branch
  • President Harry Truman issued Executive Order 9981 (1948), desegregating the U.S. military and promoting equal treatment and opportunities for African American service members
  • President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent federal troops to enforce the desegregation of Little Rock Central High School (1957), ensuring the safety of the Little Rock Nine
  • President John F. Kennedy publicly supported the civil rights movement, proposed legislation that would later become the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and used federal powers to protect activists and enforce desegregation
  • President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 into law, and launched the Great Society program to combat poverty and promote racial equality
• Legislative Branch
  • Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in public accommodations, employment, and education, and established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to enforce its provisions
  • Voting Rights Act of 1965 banned discriminatory voting practices (literacy tests, poll taxes) and provided for federal oversight of elections in areas with a history of discrimination
  • Fair Housing Act of 1968 prohibited discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, color, religion, or national origin, expanding protections for African Americans in the housing market
• Judicial Branch
  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954) declared segregated public schools unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine and paving the way for school desegregation
  • Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964) upheld the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, affirming the federal government's power to ban discrimination in private businesses
  • Loving v. Virginia (1967) struck down state laws banning interracial marriage as unconstitutional, recognizing the right to marry as a fundamental liberty
  • Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978) upheld the constitutionality of affirmative action in college admissions, but ruled that strict racial quotas were unconstitutional, setting the stage for ongoing debates about the role of race in education and employment

Impact of grassroots activism

• Role of churches and religious leaders
  • African American churches served as key centers for organizing, mobilizing, and supporting the civil rights movement, providing a safe space for meetings, rallies, and community building
  • Religious leaders, such as Martin Luther King Jr. (Southern Christian Leadership Conference), Ralph Abernathy, and Fred Shuttlesworth, played crucial roles in leading and inspiring the movement through their moral authority and commitment to nonviolence
• Student activism
  • The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), founded in 1960, became a major force in the civil rights movement, organizing sit-ins, freedom rides, and voter registration drives
  • Student activists, such as John Lewis, Diane Nash, and Stokely Carmichael, faced violence, arrests, and intimidation, but their courage and dedication helped galvanize support for the movement
• Women's contributions
  • Women played essential roles in the civil rights movement as organizers, strategists, and leaders, often working behind the scenes to sustain the movement's momentum
  • Key figures included Ella Baker (SNCC), Fannie Lou Hamer (Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party), Septima Clark (Citizenship Schools), and Rosa Parks (Montgomery Bus Boycott), among many others
• Local campaigns and initiatives
  • The Montgomery Bus Boycott, led by the Montgomery Improvement Association, demonstrated the power of local organizing and economic pressure to challenge segregation and discrimination
  • The Greensboro sit-ins, initiated by four African American college students, sparked a wave of similar protests across the South, leading to the desegregation of many public facilities and businesses
• Influence on national politics and legislation
  • Grassroots activism and community organizing helped build public support and political pressure for civil rights legislation, making it a national priority
  • The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom (1963) and the Selma to Montgomery Marches (1965) were major demonstrations that influenced the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, respectively
• Continued importance in the post-Civil Rights Era
  • Community organizing and grassroots activism remain crucial for addressing ongoing issues of racial inequality, police brutality, and systemic racism in the United States
  • The Black Lives Matter movement, founded in 2013, has utilized grassroots organizing, social media, and direct action to advocate for racial justice, police reform, and the dismantling of structural racism, demonstrating the enduring power of collective action and community mobilization in the struggle for equality

Strategies and Tactics

• Civil disobedience: Nonviolent resistance to unjust laws and practices, exemplified by sit-ins, boycotts, and freedom rides
• Integration: Efforts to bring together people of different races in various aspects of society, including schools, workplaces, and public spaces
• Desegregation: The process of ending the separation of racial groups in public facilities, institutions, and society at large

Legal and Social Context

• Jim Crow laws: State and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States from the late 19th century until 1965
• Racial discrimination: Unfair treatment based on race, which the civil rights movement sought to eliminate through legal and social changes
• Systemic racism: The ways in which racial bias is built into societal institutions, policies, and practices, perpetuating inequality and disadvantage for minority groups