🆚Game Theory and Economic Behavior Unit 15 – Game Theory in Economics and Business

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Game theory studies strategic interactions between rational decision-makers
• Players are the individuals or entities making decisions in a game
• Strategies are the complete plans of action available to each player
• Payoffs represent the outcomes or rewards for each player based on the strategies chosen
• Zero-sum games have a fixed total payoff that is divided among the players (Poker)
  • In constant-sum games, the sum of all players' payoffs is always the same regardless of their strategies
• Non-zero-sum games allow for outcomes where all players can gain or lose simultaneously (Prisoner's Dilemma)
• Cooperative games involve players forming coalitions and making binding agreements
• Non-cooperative games do not allow for enforceable contracts or agreements between players

Game Types and Structures

• Static games are played simultaneously, with players making decisions without knowledge of others' choices (Rock-Paper-Scissors)
• Dynamic games involve sequential decision-making, where players take turns and can observe previous actions (Chess)
• Perfect information games provide all players with complete knowledge of the game's structure and previous moves (Tic-Tac-Toe)
  • In these games, there is no hidden information, and all players are aware of the possible strategies and payoffs
• Imperfect information games involve uncertainty about the game's structure, payoffs, or other players' actions (Poker)
• Symmetric games have identical strategies and payoffs for all players
• Asymmetric games have different strategies, payoffs, or information available to each player (Ultimatum Game)
• Repeated games consist of the same game being played multiple times, allowing for learning and strategic adaptation

Nash Equilibrium and Strategic Thinking

• Nash equilibrium is a set of strategies where no player can improve their payoff by unilaterally changing their strategy
• In a Nash equilibrium, each player's strategy is a best response to the strategies of the other players
• Dominant strategy is the best choice for a player regardless of the strategies chosen by other players
• Dominated strategy is always inferior to another strategy, regardless of other players' actions
• Iterated elimination of dominated strategies involves repeatedly removing dominated strategies to simplify the game
• Mixed strategies involve playing different pure strategies with certain probabilities
  • In a mixed strategy Nash equilibrium, players randomize their strategies to make others indifferent between their own strategies
• Backward induction is used to solve dynamic games by starting at the end and working backwards to determine optimal strategies

Applications in Economics

• Oligopoly models use game theory to analyze markets with a small number of firms (Cournot, Bertrand)
  • Cournot competition involves firms simultaneously choosing quantities, while Bertrand competition focuses on price-setting
• Auction theory applies game theory to design and analyze different auction formats (First-price sealed-bid, Second-price sealed-bid)
• Bargaining theory examines how players negotiate and divide a surplus (Nash Bargaining Solution)
• Matching markets use game theory to study the stable allocation of resources, such as in college admissions or organ donations
• Public goods provision can be modeled as a game, highlighting the free-rider problem and the need for cooperation
• Mechanism design aims to create rules and incentives that lead to desired outcomes, considering players' strategic behavior

Business Strategy and Decision Making

• Game theory helps businesses make strategic decisions by anticipating competitors' actions and reactions
• Entry deterrence strategies aim to prevent new competitors from entering a market (Limit pricing, Capacity expansion)
• Predatory pricing involves temporarily lowering prices to drive out competitors and establish market dominance
• Product differentiation can be analyzed using game theory to understand how firms position their products relative to competitors
• Pricing strategies, such as price discrimination and dynamic pricing, can be modeled as games between firms and consumers
• Cooperation and collusion among firms can be studied using game theory, considering the incentives for cheating and the role of repeated interactions
• Strategic investments, such as research and development or capacity expansion, can be evaluated using game-theoretic frameworks

Behavioral Game Theory

• Behavioral game theory incorporates insights from psychology and behavioral economics into traditional game theory models
• Bounded rationality recognizes that players may have limited cognitive abilities and use simple heuristics to make decisions
• Prospect theory suggests that people evaluate gains and losses differently, leading to risk aversion and framing effects
• Fairness and reciprocity can influence players' behavior, even when it deviates from purely self-interested strategies (Ultimatum Game)
• Learning and adaptation can be incorporated into game theory models to study how players adjust their strategies over time
• Emotions, such as anger or trust, can affect players' decision-making and the outcomes of games
• Social norms and cultural factors can shape players' expectations and behavior in strategic interactions

Advanced Topics and Extensions

• Evolutionary game theory studies the dynamics of strategy adoption and the stability of equilibria in populations (Hawk-Dove Game)
  • Replicator dynamics describe how the frequency of strategies changes over time based on their relative payoffs
• Stochastic games involve transitions between different states, with players' actions influencing the probability of moving to each state
• Bayesian games incorporate incomplete information, where players have different types or private information (Auctions)
• Cooperative game theory focuses on coalition formation and the distribution of payoffs among players (Shapley value)
• Algorithmic game theory combines game theory with computer science to study computational aspects of strategic interactions
• Dynamic mechanism design extends mechanism design to settings with evolving information and multiple stages
• Mean field game theory analyzes strategic interactions in large populations, where individual players have negligible impact on others

Real-World Examples and Case Studies

• Prisoner's Dilemma has been used to study cooperation and defection in various contexts, from international relations to business partnerships
• Tragedy of the Commons illustrates the depletion of shared resources when individuals prioritize their own interests (Overfishing)
• Auction design has been applied to allocate scarce resources, such as radio spectrum licenses and online advertising slots
• Matching algorithms, based on game theory, have been used in school choice programs and medical residency assignments
• Bargaining theory has been applied to labor negotiations, international trade agreements, and mergers and acquisitions
• Voting systems and political campaigns can be analyzed using game theory to understand strategic behavior and outcomes
• Network formation and social media platforms can be studied using game theory to examine the incentives for creating and severing connections