3.4 Childbearing, childrearing, and parenting in ancient cultures

Ancient cultures valued fertility and childbearing highly. Having kids was key for family lines and communities. Infertility often led to stigma. Rituals and deities were tied to fertility. Some cultures used contraception and abortion.

Pregnancy and childbirth had protective rituals. Midwives were crucial, using skills and magic. After birth, purification rites helped moms and babies rejoin society. Parenting roles were often split by gender, with moms doing most childcare.

Attitudes towards Fertility and Childbearing

Cultural Value and Significance

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• Ancient societies often placed a high value on fertility and the ability to bear children
  • Essential for the continuation of the family line and the community as a whole
  • Reflected in the legal and social status of women
    • Those who bore children, particularly sons, often enjoyed higher status and privileges (Sparta, Athens)
• Infertility was often stigmatized and seen as a curse or punishment from the gods
  • Led to social and religious consequences for those affected
  • Women often blamed and faced social ostracism or divorce (Mesopotamia, Egypt)

Religious and Spiritual Associations

• Some ancient cultures associated fertility with specific deities and performed rituals to ensure their favor
  • Egyptians: Isis, Hathor, and Taweret were associated with fertility, childbirth, and motherhood
  • Greeks: Aphrodite, Hera, and Artemis were linked to fertility, marriage, and childbirth
• Rituals and offerings were made to these deities to promote fertility and ensure successful pregnancies
  • Egyptians offered figurines of Taweret and Bes to protect the mother and child (Taweret hippopotamus statuettes)
  • Greeks performed festivals like Thesmophoria in honor of Demeter to promote fertility (Eleusinian Mysteries)

Fertility Control Practices

• Ancient societies had various methods of controlling fertility
  • Use of contraceptives (honey, acacia gum, crocodile dung in Egypt)
  • Abortion (silphium plant in Greece and Rome)
  • Infanticide (exposure of unwanted or deformed infants in Sparta and Rome)
• These practices were often influenced by cultural, religious, and economic factors
  • Spartans practiced infanticide to maintain a strong and healthy population
  • Romans exposed unwanted infants, particularly girls, due to economic constraints and patriarchal values

Rituals of Pregnancy and Childbirth

Protective Rituals and Practices

• Many ancient cultures had specific rituals and practices associated with pregnancy to protect the mother and unborn child
  • Use of amulets, charms, and prayers (cowrie shells, Bes amulets in Egypt)
  • Recitation of incantations and spells (Mesopotamian incantation bowls)
  • Offerings to deities associated with childbirth (Greek women offered clothing to Artemis)
• These practices were believed to ward off evil spirits, ensure a safe delivery, and promote the health of the child

Role of Midwives

• Midwives played a crucial role in assisting with childbirth and providing care for the mother and newborn
  • Used a combination of practical skills and religious or magical practices
  • Helped with delivery, cut the umbilical cord, and bathed the newborn (Babylonian Ṣerua ritual)
  • Offered prayers, performed rituals, and used amulets to protect the mother and child (Egyptian Bes wands)
• Midwifery was often a respected profession, with midwives holding high social status and passing down knowledge through generations (Mesopotamian šabsūtu)

Postpartum Rituals and Practices

• Purification rituals were often performed after childbirth to cleanse the mother and child and reintegrate them into society
  • Greek amphidromia ceremony: carried the newborn around the hearth to introduce them to the household gods
  • Roman dies lustricus: naming ceremony and purification of the child on the 8th (girls) or 9th (boys) day after birth
• The placenta and umbilical cord were sometimes given special treatment or buried in specific locations
  • Believed to have spiritual or magical properties
  • Egyptians buried placentas in special jars, symbolizing the child's connection to the earth (placenta jars at Deir el-Medina)
  • Mesopotamians buried the placenta under the floor to ensure the child's connection to the family home

Division of Parental Responsibilities

Maternal Roles and Expectations

• In many ancient societies, the primary responsibility for child-rearing fell on the mother
  • Expected to nurse, care for, and educate young children
  • Responsible for the child's physical and emotional well-being (breastfeeding, bathing, comforting)
  • Taught children, particularly daughters, domestic skills and cultural values (weaving, cooking, religious rituals)
• The mother's role was often associated with the domestic sphere and the maintenance of the household
  • Mesopotamian and Egyptian women managed household affairs and supervised servants
  • Spartan women were responsible for managing the household and estate while men were away at war

Paternal Roles and Expectations

• Fathers often played a more distant role in child-rearing, focusing on providing for the family and serving as a disciplinarian or moral authority as children grew older
  • Responsible for the child's education and moral development (Roman paterfamilias)
  • Taught sons skills related to their future roles (farming, hunting, warfare)
  • Served as a role model for masculine behavior and values (courage, honor, loyalty)
• The father's role was often associated with the public sphere and the representation of the family in society
  • Greek and Roman fathers held legal authority over their children (patria potestas)
  • Mesopotamian fathers arranged marriages and managed family property

Influence of Social Factors

• The division of parental responsibilities was often influenced by gender roles and expectations within the society
  • Women associated with nurturing and domestic roles, men with providing and public roles
  • Rigid gender roles in Sparta: women focused on childbearing and household management, men on military duties
• Social class also influenced parental roles and responsibilities
  • Wealthy families often employed nurses, tutors, and servants to assist with child-rearing (Roman nutrices and paedagogi)
  • Lower-class families relied more on maternal care and community support
• In some cases, the state played a significant role in child-rearing
  • Sparta: boys removed from families at age 7 for military training and education (agoge system)
  • Aztec Empire: children attended compulsory schools that emphasized religious and cultural values (telpochcalli and calmecac)

Family and Community in Child-Rearing

Extended Family Involvement

• In many ancient societies, child-rearing involved the extended family, providing additional support and resources
  • Grandparents often played a significant role in caring for and educating children
    • Shared wisdom, stories, and cultural knowledge (Iroquois oral traditions)
    • Provided practical support, such as childcare and financial assistance
  • Aunts, uncles, and older siblings also contributed to child-rearing
    • Assisted with daily care, supervision, and teaching of younger children
    • Served as role models and mentors, guiding children through life stages and challenges
• The involvement of extended family helped to distribute the responsibilities of child-rearing and strengthen familial bonds

Kinship Systems and Child Belonging

• Some ancient cultures had specific kinship systems that influenced child-rearing practices and family dynamics
  • Iroquois of North America had a matrilineal kinship system
    • Children belonged to the mother's clan and were raised by the maternal extended family
    • Mothers and maternal relatives held authority over children's upbringing and education
  • Patrilineal kinship systems, such as in ancient Rome, emphasized the father's lineage and authority
    • Children belonged to the father's family and were under his legal control (patria potestas)
    • Fathers had the power to accept or reject newborns, arrange marriages, and discipline children
• Kinship systems shaped the roles and responsibilities of family members in child-rearing and determined the child's place within the larger social structure

Community Involvement and Rites of Passage

• The wider community often had a stake in the upbringing of children, providing guidance, discipline, and moral instruction
  • Neighbors, friends, and religious or political leaders offered advice and support to families
  • Community members served as role models and mentors, teaching children cultural values and skills
  • Communal events and gatherings, such as festivals and religious ceremonies, provided opportunities for children to learn and participate in social life
• Rites of passage marked the child's integration into the wider social group and their transition through life stages
  • Naming ceremonies, such as the Roman dies lustricus, introduced the child to the community and conferred social identity
  • Initiation rituals, such as the Spartan krypteia or the Mayan hetzmek, marked the child's entry into adulthood and assumption of new roles and responsibilities
  • Coming-of-age ceremonies, such as the Navajo kinaaldá or the Jewish bar/bat mitzvah, celebrated the child's maturation and readiness to contribute to society
• The involvement of the extended family and community in child-rearing helped to ensure the transmission of cultural knowledge, values, and traditions across generations