9.3 Sexual violence and exploitation in ancient civilizations
5 min read•august 15, 2024
Sexual violence was pervasive in ancient societies, reflecting and reinforcing power imbalances based on gender, class, and citizenship status. Women, enslaved people, and other marginalized groups were especially vulnerable to exploitation, with limited legal recourse.
Laws addressing sexual crimes varied widely between societies, but generally favored elite men. Victims faced significant barriers to reporting and justice, including , , and the risk of further harm to their reputation and standing.
Sexual Violence in Ancient Societies
Prevalence and Forms of Sexual Violence
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Sexual violence, including , sexual assault, and sexual exploitation, was widespread in many ancient societies across different regions and time periods
In ancient Greece, the rape of women was often portrayed in mythology, literature and art, and historical accounts suggest it was common, especially during wartime
In ancient Rome, rape was considered a crime, but legal recourse heavily favored male citizens while the rape of enslaved people and non-citizens was prevalent
Forms of sexual violence included rape as a weapon of war, sexual assault, , , and children
Same-sex sexual assault and exploitation also occurred, though it was less frequently documented than male-female sexual violence
Sexual Exploitation and Power Dynamics
in ancient Greece sometimes involved sexual exploitation of adolescent boys by older men, even when the relationship was socially sanctioned
Women and girls from lower classes, enslaved populations, and conquered peoples were especially vulnerable to sexual exploitation by men with social and legal power over them
In many societies, enslaved women were considered the sexual property of their enslavers and could be sexually abused with impunity
Prostitution was common and was often a last resort for impoverished women with limited options who faced violence and exploitation in many cases
Men from the upper classes sometimes sexually preyed upon boys and young men from lower classes, using their wealth and influence to coerce them into sexual acts
Sexual exploitation of boys and men was often tied to other forms of exploitation and enslavement, especially of conquered peoples and foreigners (war captives)
Legal Responses to Sexual Violence
Legal Consequences and Punishment
Legal and social responses to sexual violence varied significantly between different ancient societies and within societies over time
In some societies like Babylon and Assyria, laws prescribed harsh punishments like castration or death for sexual crimes, but primarily when committed against respectable women
Other societies like ancient Egypt had some legal recourse for victims, including financial compensation, but did not prescribe strong criminal punishments
In ancient Greece and Rome, rape was considered a private matter to be handled by families rather than the state, with laws focused more on the damage done to male honor than the impact on victims
Barriers to Reporting and Justice
Social stigma around sexual violence meant it often went unreported, with victims sometimes blamed for inviting the assault through their behavior
Reporting was especially difficult for those with lower social status, like enslaved people, foreigners, or unattached women, who had limited legal rights
Even when laws existed against sexual crimes, they were inconsistently enforced, especially when the perpetrator was from a higher class than the victim
Patriarchal legal systems placed the burden of proof on victims and rarely took their testimony alone as sufficient evidence to convict perpetrators
Victims who came forward risked damage to their reputation and social standing, deterring many from seeking legal recourse
Gender, Class, and Power in Exploitation
Vulnerability of Marginalized Groups
Sexual exploitation in ancient societies was deeply tied to power imbalances related to gender, social class, enslavement, and citizenship status
Women, especially those from lower classes or enslaved populations, were most vulnerable to sexual exploitation due to their lack of social and legal power
Foreigners, war captives, and colonized peoples were also at high risk of sexual exploitation by conquering armies and occupying powers
Children, particularly those who were orphaned, enslaved, or from impoverished families, were vulnerable to sexual abuse and exploitation by adults
Intersection with Other Forms of Oppression
Sexual exploitation often intersected with other forms of labor exploitation, with enslaved women forced to provide sexual services in addition to physical labor
In societies with slavery, the sexual abuse of enslaved people by their enslavers was widespread and normalized as a tool of domination and control
Prostitution and sexual exploitation of lower-class women and girls was tied to their economic vulnerability and lack of other options for survival
Sexual violence against marginalized groups served to reinforce hierarchies of power along the lines of gender, class, ethnicity, and citizenship status
Impunity for upper-class perpetrators of sexual exploitation upheld the entitlement and privileges of the elite at the expense of the oppressed
Impact of Sexual Violence on Victims
Physical and Mental Health Consequences
Sexual violence had severe and lasting impacts on victims' physical, mental, and social well-being in ancient societies, though this was rarely a priority for legal or social systems
Physically, victims faced the risk of injury, sexually transmitted infections, and pregnancy from rape, with medical care difficult to access, especially for lower-class victims
Psychologically, victims likely experienced trauma, shame, and fear, which could be isolating and persist long-term in societies that stigmatized victims
When victims became pregnant from rape, they faced additional stigma and challenges in caring for the child alone, sometimes leading to infanticide
Social and Familial Repercussions
Socially, sexual violence could greatly damage victims' reputations, prospects for marriage, and social standing in societies that placed a high value on sexual purity for women
The families and communities of victims also suffered from the impacts of sexual violence, including financial burdens, social ostracization, and cycles of trauma
Victim-blaming attitudes and the normalization of sexual violence made it difficult for victims to seek support or justice, compounding their trauma
At a societal level, pervasive sexual violence upheld systems of domination and exploitation along the lines of gender, class, and ethnic hierarchies
The lack of consequences for perpetrators and the silencing of victims' experiences enabled the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence