14.2 The Arab conquest and its immediate impact

The Arab conquest of Egypt in 639 AD marked a turning point in the region's history. Led by 'Amr ibn al-As', Muslim forces defeated the Byzantines in key battles, culminating in the capture of Alexandria and the Treaty of Alexandria in 641 AD.

This conquest brought immediate changes to Egypt's governance and society. The introduction of the jizya tax, establishment of Fustat as the new capital, and implementation of Islamic law reshaped Egypt's political and economic landscape, setting the stage for centuries of Arab rule.

Arab Conquest of Egypt

Military Campaign Led by 'Amr ibn al-As'

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• 'Amr ibn al-As' was an Arab military commander who led the Muslim conquest of Egypt starting in 639 AD
• He was appointed by Caliph Umar to lead the invasion of Egypt, which was then under Byzantine control
• 'Amr ibn al-As' had previously served as a successful military commander in Palestine and Syria, proving his tactical skills

Key Battles and Sieges

• Battle of Heliopolis (640 AD) was a decisive victory for the Arab forces led by 'Amr ibn al-As' against the Byzantines
  • The battle took place near the ancient city of Heliopolis (modern-day Cairo)
  • Arab forces outmaneuvered the Byzantines, forcing them to retreat to the fortress of Babylon
• Siege of Alexandria (641 AD) lasted for several months as the Arab forces attempted to capture the well-fortified city
  • Alexandria was the capital of Byzantine Egypt and a major economic and cultural center
  • The Arab forces eventually breached the city walls and captured Alexandria, solidifying their control over Egypt

Treaty of Alexandria

• The Treaty of Alexandria (641 AD) was signed between 'Amr ibn al-As' and the Byzantine governor Cyrus, officially ending Byzantine rule in Egypt
• Under the terms of the treaty, the Byzantines agreed to surrender Alexandria and evacuate their troops from Egypt
• The treaty guaranteed the safety and property rights of the local Coptic Christian population in exchange for their submission to Arab rule and payment of the jizya tax

Immediate Changes in Governance

Introduction of the Jizya Tax

• The jizya was a per capita tax levied on non-Muslim subjects (dhimmis) living under Islamic rule
• It was imposed on adult males of military age and varied based on socioeconomic status
• Payment of the jizya granted dhimmis protection, security, and exemption from military service
• The introduction of the jizya in Egypt provided a significant source of revenue for the new Arab administration

Establishment of Fustat as the New Capital

• Fustat (Old Cairo) was founded by 'Amr ibn al-As' in 641 AD as the new administrative capital of Islamic Egypt
• The city was strategically located near the Nile River and the ancient fortress of Babylon
• Fustat quickly grew into a major economic and cultural center, attracting Arab settlers, merchants, and scholars
• The establishment of Fustat marked a shift in the political and economic center of gravity away from Alexandria

Incorporation into the Umayyad Caliphate

• Egypt became a province of the Umayyad Caliphate, which ruled the Islamic world from 661 to 750 AD
• The Umayyad caliphs appointed governors (walis) to administer Egypt on their behalf
• Under Umayyad rule, Egypt's agricultural wealth and strategic location made it a vital province of the caliphate
• The Umayyad period saw the expansion of irrigation networks, increased agricultural production (wheat, flax, cotton), and the growth of trade

Implementation of Islamic Governance

• Islamic law (sharia) was gradually implemented in Egypt, replacing the existing Byzantine legal system
• Muslim judges (qadis) were appointed to administer justice based on Islamic principles
• The Arabic language was introduced as the language of administration and gradually replaced Greek and Coptic in official contexts
• The Islamic calendar, based on the lunar year, was adopted for administrative and religious purposes

Cultural and Linguistic Shifts

Decline of the Coptic Language

• Coptic, the native language of Christian Egyptians, gradually declined in usage and prestige following the Arab conquest
• Arabic became the language of administration, commerce, and intellectual discourse, while Coptic remained primarily a liturgical language
• The process of language shift was gradual, with Coptic remaining widely spoken for several centuries before being largely replaced by Arabic
• The decline of Coptic was accelerated by the conversion of many Egyptians to Islam and the adoption of Arabic as the language of the Quran and Islamic scholarship

Arabization of Egyptian Society

• The Arab conquest led to a gradual process of Arabization, in which Egyptian society adopted Arab cultural, linguistic, and religious practices
• Intermarriage between Arab settlers and local Egyptians contributed to the spread of Arabic language and Islamic customs
• The Arabic language became the lingua franca of Egypt, facilitating communication and cultural exchange across the Islamic world
• Arabization was accompanied by the Islamization of Egyptian society, as many Copts converted to Islam over time (tax incentives, social mobility)
• The process of Arabization and Islamization transformed Egypt's cultural landscape, blending Arab, Islamic, and Coptic elements into a unique Egyptian identity