🇬🇷Greek Archaeology Unit 4 – Archaeological Methods and Techniques

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Archaeology studies past human cultures through the systematic recovery and analysis of material remains
• Artifacts are portable objects made, modified, or used by humans (pottery, tools, jewelry)
• Features are non-portable evidence of past human activities (hearths, storage pits, post holes)
• Ecofacts are organic or environmental remains that have archaeological significance (seeds, pollen, animal bones)
• Stratigraphy refers to the layering of archaeological deposits over time
  • Law of Superposition states that, in undisturbed contexts, older layers are found below younger layers
• Context is the relationship between artifacts, features, and their surroundings
  • Provenience is the three-dimensional location of an artifact or feature within a site
• Assemblage is a group of artifacts from a specific context or site that are related in time and space

Archaeological Site Types

• Open-air sites are exposed on the surface and can include settlements, camps, and resource procurement areas
• Caves and rock shelters provide natural protection and often contain well-preserved organic materials
• Submerged sites are found underwater and can include shipwrecks, submerged settlements, and inundated landscapes
• Burial sites can range from individual graves to large cemeteries and provide insights into social structure, health, and mortuary practices
• Ritual and religious sites include temples, shrines, and sacred landscapes
• Industrial sites are locations where raw materials were processed or goods were manufactured (pottery kilns, metal workshops)
• Agricultural sites include fields, terraces, and irrigation systems
• Urban sites are characterized by dense concentrations of buildings, streets, and public spaces

Survey and Excavation Techniques

• Archaeological survey is the systematic search for and recording of archaeological sites and features within a defined area
  • Pedestrian survey involves walking over an area and visually identifying surface artifacts and features
  • Geophysical survey uses non-invasive techniques (magnetometry, ground-penetrating radar) to detect subsurface features
• Excavation is the controlled removal of soil and sediments to expose, record, and interpret archaeological remains
• Stratigraphic excavation involves the careful removal of layers in reverse order of deposition
  • Arbitrary levels may be used when natural stratigraphy is not apparent
• Horizontal excavation exposes broad areas to understand spatial relationships and site layout
• Vertical excavation focuses on deep, narrow trenches to establish a site's chronology and stratigraphy
• Screening is the process of sifting excavated soil through mesh to recover small artifacts
• Flotation is used to recover organic remains (seeds, charcoal) by separating them from soil using water

Dating Methods

• Relative dating establishes the chronological order of events or artifacts without assigning specific dates
  • Stratigraphy and the Law of Superposition are key principles in relative dating
  • Seriation arranges artifacts in a sequence based on changes in style or frequency over time
• Absolute dating assigns specific dates or date ranges to artifacts, features, or events
• Radiocarbon dating measures the decay of carbon-14 in organic materials to determine their age
  • Applicable to materials up to ~50,000 years old (wood, charcoal, bone, shell)
• Dendrochronology uses tree-ring patterns to date wooden artifacts and structures
• Thermoluminescence dates the last time ceramic or stone materials were heated
• Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dates the last time sediments were exposed to sunlight
• Archaeomagnetic dating measures the orientation of magnetic particles in clay to determine when it was last heated

Artifact Analysis and Classification

• Typology is the classification of artifacts based on shared physical attributes (shape, size, material)
  • Used to establish chronologies, trace cultural connections, and understand technological change
• Functional analysis examines the use-wear and residues on artifacts to infer their function and use
• Material analysis identifies the raw materials used to manufacture artifacts
  • Petrographic analysis examines the mineral composition of ceramics to determine their origin and production techniques
  • Metallurgical analysis studies the composition and manufacturing processes of metal artifacts
• Experimental archaeology replicates ancient technologies and processes to understand artifact production and use
• Ethnoarchaeology studies modern societies to draw analogies and inferences about past human behavior
• Spatial analysis examines the distribution of artifacts and features within a site to understand activity areas and social organization

Recording and Documentation

• Excavation records include field notes, drawings, photographs, and digital data
  • Context sheets record the details of each excavated context (soil description, artifacts, features)
  • Plan drawings map the horizontal relationships between artifacts, features, and structures
  • Profile drawings depict the vertical relationships between layers and features
• Artifact cataloging involves the systematic recording of each artifact's attributes (material, dimensions, weight, decoration)
• Photography is used to document artifacts, features, and site layouts
  • Photogrammetry creates 3D models of artifacts and sites using overlapping photographs
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS) integrate and analyze spatial data to create maps and visualizations
• Databases store and organize archaeological data for analysis and long-term preservation

Preservation and Conservation

• Conservation is the process of stabilizing and preserving artifacts and features for long-term study and display
  • Cleaning removes dirt, corrosion, and other accretions from artifacts
  • Consolidation strengthens fragile materials by impregnating them with adhesives or consolidants
• Restoration involves the repair and reconstruction of damaged or incomplete artifacts
• Preventive conservation focuses on creating stable environments to minimize deterioration (temperature, humidity, light control)
• In-situ preservation maintains artifacts and features in their original context for future study
• Reburial is a strategy for protecting sites and features by covering them with soil after excavation
• Repatriation is the return of cultural objects and human remains to their communities of origin

Ethical Considerations and Challenges

• Looting and the illicit antiquities trade threaten the integrity of archaeological sites and the loss of cultural heritage
• Professional codes of ethics guide archaeologists in their responsibilities to the public, descendants, and the archaeological record
  • Emphasize stewardship, public education, and the preservation of archaeological resources for future generations
• Indigenous rights and the repatriation of cultural objects and human remains are important ethical issues
  • Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) in the United States
• Balancing site preservation with development and land use pressures is an ongoing challenge
• Public outreach and education are essential for building support for archaeological research and preservation
• Collaborative and community-based archaeology involves working with local communities in the research process
• Ensuring the long-term curation and accessibility of archaeological collections is a critical responsibility