🇬🇷Greek Archaeology Unit 9 – Classical Period

Key Concepts and Timeline

• Classical Period in Ancient Greece spans from 480 BCE to 323 BCE, following the Archaic Period and preceding the Hellenistic Period
• Marked by the defeat of the Persian invasion in 480-479 BCE, which led to a period of relative peace and prosperity
• Athens emerges as a dominant political and cultural force, establishing the Delian League in 478 BCE
  • Delian League an alliance of Greek city-states led by Athens to counter Persian threat
• Pericles rises to power in Athens (461-429 BCE), overseeing the construction of the Parthenon and other monumental buildings on the Acropolis
• Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) between Athens and Sparta leads to the decline of Athenian power
  • Sparta emerges victorious, but is weakened by the conflict
• Rise of Macedon under Philip II (359-336 BCE) and his son Alexander the Great (336-323 BCE)
  • Alexander conquers vast territories, spreading Greek culture throughout the Mediterranean and Near East
• Classical Period ends with the death of Alexander in 323 BCE, marking the beginning of the Hellenistic Period

Major Archaeological Sites

• Acropolis of Athens contains some of the most iconic buildings of the Classical Period
  • Parthenon (447-432 BCE) dedicated to Athena, the patron goddess of Athens
  • Erechtheion (421-406 BCE) known for its intricate Caryatid porch
  • Propylaea (437-432 BCE) monumental gateway to the Acropolis
• Agora of Athens the political, social, and commercial center of the city
  • Stoa of Attalos (mid-2nd century BCE) a reconstructed example of a typical Classical stoa (covered walkway)
• Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi a major religious center and home to the famous Oracle of Delphi
  • Temple of Apollo (4th century BCE) the main temple at the site
• Olympia the site of the ancient Olympic Games and a major religious center
  • Temple of Zeus (460-457 BCE) housed the famous statue of Zeus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
• Epidaurus known for its well-preserved theater (4th century BCE) and the sanctuary of Asclepius, the god of healing

Art and Architecture

• Classical art characterized by idealized naturalism, balance, and proportion
  • Contrapposto stance introduced, depicting the natural shift of weight in the human body
• Sculpture becomes more lifelike and expressive
  • Myron's Discobolus (c. 450 BCE) depicts an athlete in motion
  • Polykleitos' Doryphoros (c. 440 BCE) embodies the ideal proportions of the male body
• Architectural orders (Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian) are refined and standardized
  • Doric order characterized by simple, sturdy columns with no base and plain capitals
  • Ionic order features slender columns with scroll-like capitals and a base
  • Corinthian order known for its ornate capitals decorated with acanthus leaves
• Temples are the most prominent examples of Classical architecture
  • Typically rectangular with a colonnade surrounding a central cella (room housing the cult statue)
• Public buildings, such as stoas and bouleuteria (council chambers), become more prevalent in city planning

Social and Political Structures

• City-states (poleis) remain the primary political units, with varying forms of government
  • Athens develops a democratic system, where male citizens participate directly in decision-making
  • Sparta maintains an oligarchic system focused on military training and austerity
• Social hierarchy consists of citizens, metics (foreign residents), and slaves
  • Citizenship is limited to free-born males; women and slaves are excluded from political life
• Education becomes more formalized, particularly in Athens
  • Emphasis on rhetoric, philosophy, and physical training
• Religion continues to play a central role in daily life and public events
  • Panhellenic festivals, such as the Olympic Games and the Pythian Games, foster a sense of shared Greek identity
• The symposium, a male-only drinking party, serves as a forum for intellectual and political discourse

Material Culture and Daily Life

• Pottery remains a key indicator of daily life and artistic trends
  • Red-figure technique becomes more prevalent, allowing for greater detail and expressiveness
  • Attic pottery exported throughout the Mediterranean, reflecting Athenian cultural influence
• Domestic architecture becomes more elaborate, with multi-room houses organized around a central courtyard
  • Pastas house type emerges, featuring a colonnade on one side of the courtyard
• Textiles, particularly wool and linen, are important for clothing and trade
  • Women are primarily responsible for textile production within households
• Agriculture and trade continue to form the basis of the economy
  • Olive oil, wine, and grain are major exports
  • The Piraeus, Athens' port city, becomes a hub of maritime trade
• Coinage becomes more standardized, facilitating trade and economic transactions

Technological Advancements

• Developments in architecture and engineering enable the construction of larger, more complex buildings
  • Use of iron tools and advanced lifting devices, such as cranes and pulleys
  • Refinement of the arch and vault, allowing for greater spans and more diverse building types
• Advances in water management, including aqueducts and cisterns, improve urban living conditions
  • The Eupalinian aqueduct on Samos (6th century BCE) is an early example of a tunnel aqueduct
• Innovations in military technology, such as the catapult and siege engines, change the nature of warfare
• The development of the torsion spring leads to the invention of the ballista, a powerful artillery weapon
• Improvements in shipbuilding and navigation facilitate long-distance trade and naval warfare
  • The trireme, a warship with three rows of oars, becomes the backbone of the Athenian navy
• The introduction of the potter's wheel and the use of molds revolutionize ceramic production

Influential Figures and Events

• Pericles (c. 495-429 BCE) Athenian statesman who oversaw the city's Golden Age
  • Implemented the building program on the Acropolis and fostered the growth of democracy
• Phidias (c. 480-430 BCE) the most renowned sculptor of the Classical Period
  • Created the gold and ivory statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon and the statue of Zeus at Olympia
• Socrates (c. 470-399 BCE) Athenian philosopher who emphasized critical thinking and ethical inquiry
  • His teachings, recorded by his student Plato, form the basis of Western philosophy
• Thucydides (c. 460-400 BCE) Athenian historian who wrote the History of the Peloponnesian War
  • His work is considered a seminal example of historical analysis and impartiality
• Hippocrates (c. 460-370 BCE) the "father of medicine" who established medicine as a rational science
  • The Hippocratic Oath, a code of ethics for physicians, is named after him
• The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) a pivotal conflict between Athens and Sparta that reshaped the Greek world
  • The war ended with Sparta's victory but left both city-states weakened and vulnerable to outside powers

Legacy and Cultural Impact

• The Classical Period is considered the height of ancient Greek civilization, setting standards for art, architecture, literature, and philosophy
• Classical Greek art and architecture have had a lasting influence on Western art and design
  • Neoclassicism in the 18th and 19th centuries drew heavily on Classical models
• The works of Greek playwrights, such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, continue to be performed and adapted
• The Socratic method, based on questioning and dialogue, remains a fundamental teaching tool
• The foundations of Western philosophy, including the works of Plato and Aristotle, have their roots in the Classical Period
• The Olympic Games, revived in 1896, are a modern testament to the enduring legacy of ancient Greek athletic traditions
• Classical Greek political thought, particularly Athenian democracy, has influenced the development of modern democratic systems
• The study of Classical Greek language and literature remains a cornerstone of Western education and scholarship