🍁History of Canada – Before 1867 Unit 3 – Colonial Growth in Early Canada

Key Events and Timeline

• Early 16th century: European exploration of the Atlantic coast of North America begins with voyages by John Cabot (1497) and Jacques Cartier (1534-1541)
• 1608: Samuel de Champlain establishes the first permanent French settlement in Quebec, marking the beginning of New France
• 1670: The Hudson's Bay Company is founded, granting the company a monopoly over the fur trade in the Hudson Bay drainage basin (Rupert's Land)
• 1713: The Treaty of Utrecht ends the War of the Spanish Succession, with France ceding Acadia, Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay to Britain
• 1755: The Acadian Expulsion (Great Upheaval) occurs, with the British deporting thousands of Acadians from Nova Scotia to other British colonies and France
• 1759: The Battle of the Plains of Abraham takes place near Quebec City, resulting in a decisive British victory over the French during the Seven Years' War
• 1763: The Treaty of Paris ends the Seven Years' War, with France ceding most of its North American territories to Britain, including New France (Canada)
• 1791: The Constitutional Act is passed, dividing the Province of Quebec into Upper Canada (Ontario) and Lower Canada (Quebec), each with its own elected legislative assembly

Colonial Powers and Their Interests

• France: Focused on the fur trade, establishing alliances with Indigenous peoples (Huron, Algonquin), and spreading Catholicism through missionary work
  • Established a centralized system of governance in New France, with the governor, intendant, and bishop sharing power
• Britain: Primarily interested in securing access to resources (fish, fur, timber), establishing naval supremacy, and protecting its North American colonies
  • Adopted a more decentralized approach to colonial governance, with elected assemblies in some colonies (Nova Scotia, Thirteen Colonies)
• Spain: Concentrated on the search for gold and silver, with limited exploration and settlement in present-day Canada (Pacific Northwest)
• Netherlands: Engaged in the fur trade and established short-lived settlements (New Netherland, including parts of present-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick)
• Indigenous peoples: Sought to maintain their autonomy, territories, and way of life while engaging in trade and diplomatic relations with European powers

Indigenous Peoples and Early Interactions

• First Nations: Diverse groups with distinct languages, cultures, and political structures, including Algonquian, Iroquoian, and Inuit peoples
  • Engaged in trade, diplomacy, and military alliances with European powers
  • Played a crucial role in the fur trade as suppliers, intermediaries, and guides
• Métis: Emerged as a distinct cultural group in the 18th and 19th centuries, with mixed European and Indigenous ancestry
  • Played a significant role in the fur trade and later fought for political and land rights (Red River Rebellion, North-West Rebellion)
• European-Indigenous relations: Characterized by a mix of cooperation, conflict, and cultural exchange
  • Early alliances and trade agreements (Great Peace of Montreal, 1701) gave way to increasing European encroachment on Indigenous lands and attempts at assimilation (residential schools, Indian Act)
• Impact of European contact: Introduced new technologies, goods, and diseases (smallpox, measles) that significantly affected Indigenous populations and ways of life

Settlement Patterns and Demographics

• New France: Concentrated along the St. Lawrence River valley, with smaller settlements in Acadia (present-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) and Louisiana
  • Slow population growth due to limited immigration and high mortality rates
  • Seigneurial system of land tenure, with seigneurs granting land to habitants in exchange for rent and labor
• British North America: Settlements initially focused on the Atlantic coast (Thirteen Colonies) and later expanded into the interior (Upper Canada, Rupert's Land)
  • Faster population growth due to higher immigration rates and natural increase
  • Land granted to settlers through free and common socage, with private ownership and fewer obligations to landlords
• Urban centers: Developed around strategic locations for trade, defense, and administration (Quebec City, Montreal, Halifax, York)
• Rural areas: Characterized by agricultural settlements, with subsistence farming gradually giving way to commercial agriculture (wheat, timber)
• Demographic composition: Predominantly French in New France and British in British North America, with smaller numbers of Indigenous peoples, Africans, and other European immigrants

Economic Development and Trade

• Fur trade: The dominant economic activity in the early colonial period, with Europeans and Indigenous peoples exchanging manufactured goods for beaver pelts
  • Monopolistic companies (Hudson's Bay Company, North West Company) controlled much of the trade
  • Competition between French and British traders led to exploration and expansion into the interior (voyageurs, coureurs des bois)
• Fishing: A major industry in the Atlantic colonies (Newfoundland, Nova Scotia), with cod, salmon, and other species exported to Europe
• Agriculture: Gradually expanded as settlements grew, with subsistence farming giving way to commercial crops (wheat, timber, potash)
  • Seigneurial system in New France and free and common socage in British North America shaped land use and tenure
• Manufacturing: Limited in the early colonial period, with most manufactured goods imported from Europe
  • Some local production of ships, lumber, and iron goods developed in the 18th century
• Mercantilism: The dominant economic policy, with colonies seen as sources of raw materials and markets for finished goods from the mother country
  • Navigation Acts and other trade restrictions aimed to benefit the metropolitan economy at the expense of colonial development

Political Structures and Governance

• New France: Centralized system of governance, with the governor, intendant, and bishop sharing power
  • Governor responsible for military affairs and external relations
  • Intendant oversaw civil administration, justice, and economic development
  • Bishop managed religious affairs and education
• British North America: More decentralized approach, with elected assemblies in some colonies (Nova Scotia, Thirteen Colonies)
  • Governors appointed by the British Crown, with varying degrees of authority and cooperation with local elites
  • Gradual development of representative institutions and demands for greater colonial autonomy (American Revolution, Rebellions of 1837-1838)
• Indigenous political structures: Varied widely, with some groups organized into confederacies (Iroquois, Wabanaki) and others with more decentralized leadership
  • European powers often sought to manipulate or undermine Indigenous political structures to advance their own interests
• Imperial rivalries: Shaped colonial governance and borders, with France and Britain competing for control of North America
  • Series of wars (King William's War, Queen Anne's War, Seven Years' War) led to territorial exchanges and the eventual British conquest of New France

Social and Cultural Dynamics

• New France: Characterized by a hierarchical society, with the nobility, clergy, and habitants occupying distinct social positions
  • Catholic Church played a dominant role in education, healthcare, and moral regulation
  • French language, civil law, and seigneurial land tenure shaped cultural identity
• British North America: More diverse and socially mobile society, with a growing middle class and greater religious pluralism
  • Anglican Church initially dominant, but other Protestant denominations (Presbyterians, Methodists) gained influence
  • English common law and freehold land tenure shaped legal and property rights
• Indigenous societies: Faced increasing pressure to assimilate or adapt to European ways of life
  • Missionary activity aimed to convert Indigenous peoples to Christianity and undermine traditional beliefs and practices
  • Métis emerged as a distinct cultural group, blending Indigenous and European traditions
• Cultural exchange: Occurred through trade, intermarriage, and other forms of interaction between Europeans, Indigenous peoples, and Africans
  • Adoption of new technologies, foods, and cultural practices (horses, guns, tobacco) by all groups
  • Development of hybrid languages (Michif) and art forms (beadwork, quillwork)

Legacy and Impact on Modern Canada

• Political foundations: The colonial period laid the groundwork for Canada's modern political system, with the gradual development of representative institutions and federalism
  • British North America Act (1867) established the Dominion of Canada as a self-governing nation within the British Empire
  • Ongoing struggles for Indigenous rights and self-determination rooted in the colonial experience
• Economic development: The fur trade, fishing, and agriculture established during the colonial period remained important industries in the 19th and early 20th centuries
  • Resource extraction (timber, minerals) and manufacturing expanded as Canada industrialized and diversified its economy
• Social and cultural diversity: The colonial period shaped Canada's linguistic, religious, and ethnic composition
  • Official bilingualism (English and French) and multiculturalism reflect the legacy of European colonization and immigration
  • Indigenous peoples continue to assert their distinct identities and rights within the Canadian state
• Regional disparities: The uneven development of the colonies during the colonial period contributed to lasting regional differences in economic, political, and cultural life
  • Central Canada (Ontario and Quebec) emerged as the dominant region, with the Atlantic and Western provinces playing subordinate roles
  • Ongoing debates over equalization, resource sharing, and national unity reflect these historical divisions