🇨🇦History of Canada – 1867 to Present Unit 12 – Indigenous Rights and Reconciliation (1960s-Now)

Historical Context

• Indigenous peoples in Canada faced systemic discrimination, oppression, and cultural assimilation policies for centuries
• Residential school system established in the late 19th century aimed to "civilize" and assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian society
  • Children were forcibly removed from their families and communities
  • Subjected to abuse, neglect, and cultural suppression
• The Indian Act of 1876 gave the Canadian government control over Indigenous peoples' lives and lands
  • Restricted Indigenous rights and freedoms
  • Imposed a paternalistic and discriminatory system of governance
• Indigenous peoples were denied the right to vote until 1960, despite being the original inhabitants of the land
• The Sixties Scoop (1960s-1980s) involved the widespread removal of Indigenous children from their families and placement in non-Indigenous foster homes or adoption

Key Events and Movements

• The White Paper (1969) proposed by the Trudeau government aimed to eliminate the Indian Act and assimilate Indigenous peoples into Canadian society
  • Met with strong opposition from Indigenous leaders and activists
  • Seen as an attempt to erase Indigenous identity and rights
• The Red Paper (1970) was a counter-proposal by Indigenous leaders rejecting the White Paper and demanding recognition of Indigenous rights and self-determination
• The Oka Crisis (1990) was a 78-day standoff between Mohawk protesters and Canadian military over a proposed golf course expansion on disputed land
  • Highlighted the ongoing land rights issues and tensions between Indigenous communities and the government
• The Idle No More movement (2012) was a grassroots Indigenous protest movement against bill C-45 and other legislation that threatened Indigenous rights and environmental protection
  • Sparked nationwide protests, rallies, and round dances
  • Raised awareness about Indigenous issues and the need for reconciliation

Indigenous Leaders and Activists

• George Manuel (1921-1989) was a prominent Indigenous leader and activist
  • Founding president of the National Indian Brotherhood (now the Assembly of First Nations)
  • Advocated for Indigenous rights, self-determination, and the recognition of Aboriginal title
• Elijah Harper (1949-2013) was a Cree politician and activist
  • Played a crucial role in the defeat of the Meech Lake Accord (1990) due to its lack of recognition of Indigenous rights
  • Became a symbol of Indigenous resistance and the struggle for recognition
• Cindy Blackstock is a Gitxsan activist and Executive Director of the First Nations Child and Family Caring Society
  • Advocates for the rights of Indigenous children and families
  • Filed a human rights complaint against the Canadian government for discriminatory funding of child welfare services on reserves
• Murray Sinclair is an Anishinaabe judge and former chair of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission
  • Played a key role in investigating the impacts of the residential school system and promoting reconciliation
  • Continues to advocate for Indigenous rights and justice reform

Government Policies and Legislation

• The Constitution Act (1982) recognized and affirmed existing Aboriginal and treaty rights
  • Section 35 provided constitutional protection for Indigenous rights
  • Laid the foundation for future negotiations and legal battles
• The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) (1991-1996) was a comprehensive study of the relationship between Indigenous peoples and the Canadian government
  • Produced a five-volume report with 440 recommendations for improving the lives of Indigenous peoples
  • Called for a renewed relationship based on mutual respect, recognition, and reconciliation
• The Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement (2007) was the largest class-action settlement in Canadian history
  • Provided compensation for survivors of residential schools
  • Established the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate the impacts of the residential school system
• The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2007
  • Canada initially opposed the declaration but eventually endorsed it in 2016
  • Provides a framework for the rights of Indigenous peoples, including self-determination, land rights, and cultural preservation

Legal Battles and Court Decisions

• Calder v. British Columbia (1973) was a landmark Supreme Court case that recognized the existence of Aboriginal title
  • Although the Nisga'a Nation lost the case on a technicality, the court acknowledged that Aboriginal title existed prior to colonization
  • Paved the way for future land claims and treaty negotiations
• R. v. Sparrow (1990) was a Supreme Court case that established the Sparrow test for justifying infringements on Aboriginal rights
  • The court ruled that Aboriginal rights, such as fishing rights, could only be infringed upon for valid reasons and with minimal impairment
  • Placed the burden of proof on the government to justify any infringements
• Delgamuukw v. British Columbia (1997) was a groundbreaking Supreme Court case that further defined Aboriginal title
  • The court recognized that Aboriginal title is a right to the land itself, not just the right to use it
  • Established that oral histories and traditional knowledge could be used as evidence in land claims
• Tsilhqot'in Nation v. British Columbia (2014) was the first time the Supreme Court granted Aboriginal title to a specific area of land
  • The court ruled that the Tsilhqot'in Nation had title to approximately 1,750 square kilometers of their traditional territory
  • Set a precedent for future land claims and the recognition of Aboriginal title

Truth and Reconciliation Commission

• The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was established as part of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement
  • Mandated to investigate the impacts of the residential school system and promote reconciliation
  • Conducted hearings across Canada from 2008 to 2015, gathering testimonies from survivors and witnesses
• The TRC's final report (2015) included 94 Calls to Action for reconciliation
  • Recommendations covered a wide range of areas, including child welfare, education, health, justice, and language preservation
  • Called for the implementation of UNDRIP and the recognition of Indigenous rights
• The TRC's work brought the truth about residential schools to the forefront of Canadian consciousness
  • Highlighted the intergenerational trauma and ongoing impacts on Indigenous communities
  • Emphasized the need for reconciliation and healing

Contemporary Issues and Challenges

• The ongoing crisis of missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls (MMIWG) is a tragic reality in Canada
  • Indigenous women and girls are disproportionately affected by violence and discrimination
  • The National Inquiry into MMIWG (2016-2019) concluded that the crisis amounts to genocide and called for urgent action
• The overrepresentation of Indigenous peoples in the criminal justice system is a persistent problem
  • Indigenous peoples, particularly youth, are more likely to be incarcerated and face systemic barriers in accessing justice
  • Calls for justice reform, culturally appropriate services, and alternatives to incarceration
• The lack of clean drinking water on many First Nations reserves is a longstanding issue
  • Inadequate infrastructure and funding have left many communities without access to safe, clean water
  • The government has pledged to end long-term drinking water advisories, but progress has been slow
• The child welfare system continues to disproportionately impact Indigenous families
  • Indigenous children are overrepresented in the foster care system, often due to poverty, intergenerational trauma, and systemic discrimination
  • Calls for Indigenous-led child welfare services and the implementation of the TRC's Calls to Action

Moving Forward: Reconciliation Efforts

• The National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation (NCTR) was established to preserve the records and legacy of the TRC
  • Serves as a repository for the TRC's archives and promotes ongoing research and education on residential schools and reconciliation
  • Hosts events and initiatives to engage Canadians in the reconciliation process
• Indigenous-led initiatives and organizations are working towards self-determination and cultural revitalization
  • Language revitalization programs aim to preserve and promote Indigenous languages
  • Land-based education and cultural camps reconnect Indigenous youth with their traditions and identities
• Reconciliation through education is a key priority
  • Calls for the integration of Indigenous histories, cultures, and perspectives in school curricula
  • Post-secondary institutions are developing Indigenous studies programs and initiatives to support Indigenous students
• Collaborative efforts between Indigenous communities and the government are crucial for advancing reconciliation
  • Nation-to-nation relationships based on respect, recognition, and partnership
  • Ongoing dialogue, consultation, and co-development of policies and programs that impact Indigenous peoples
• Reconciliation is an ongoing process that requires the commitment and participation of all Canadians
  • Acknowledging the truth about Canada's colonial past and its ongoing impacts
  • Supporting Indigenous-led initiatives and advocating for the implementation of the TRC's Calls to Action
  • Engaging in personal learning, reflection, and action towards building a more just and equitable society