🇨🇦History of Canada – 1867 to Present Unit 3 – Macdonald Era: Canada's Late 19th Century

Key Events and Timeline

• Confederation of Canada established in 1867 united the provinces of Canada (Ontario and Quebec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick
• Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory purchased from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1869 significantly expanded Canada's territory
• Red River Rebellion led by Louis Riel in 1869-1870 resisted Canadian authority and led to the creation of the province of Manitoba
• British Columbia joined Confederation in 1871 after the promise of a transcontinental railway
• Prince Edward Island joined Confederation in 1873
• National Policy implemented in 1879 aimed to promote Canadian industry, protect manufacturers, and settle the West
  • Consisted of high tariffs, construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and encouragement of European immigration
• North-West Rebellion in 1885 led by Louis Riel and Métis resisters suppressed by Canadian forces, resulting in Riel's execution

Political Landscape

• Macdonald's Conservative Party dominated Canadian politics during this era, holding power for most of the period
• Liberal Party, led by Alexander Mackenzie, briefly held power from 1873 to 1878
• Federal government's powers expanded as it sought to build a unified nation and promote economic development
• Patronage system prevalent, with political appointments and favors used to reward supporters
• Macdonald's centralized vision of Confederation often clashed with provincial rights and interests
  • Disputes over jurisdiction and power-sharing between federal and provincial governments
• Electoral franchise limited to male property owners, excluding women, Indigenous peoples, and many working-class individuals
• Gerrymandering and other electoral manipulations used to favor the ruling party

Economic Developments

• National Policy aimed to promote domestic manufacturing, settle the West, and build a transcontinental railway
  • High tariffs (up to 35%) imposed on imported manufactured goods to protect Canadian industries
  • Canadian Pacific Railway completed in 1885, linking the country from coast to coast
  • Western settlement encouraged through land grants, immigration policies, and the Dominion Lands Act
• Agriculture expanded rapidly, particularly in the Prairie provinces, as new lands were settled and cultivated
  • Wheat became a major export crop, with Canada becoming one of the world's leading producers
• Resource extraction industries, such as logging, mining, and fishing, grew in importance
  • Timber and mineral resources exploited to meet domestic needs and for export
• Industrialization accelerated, particularly in Central Canada, with the growth of manufacturing, textiles, and other industries
  • Concentration of industry in Montreal and Toronto, leading to rapid urbanization
• Economic booms and busts occurred, with periods of growth followed by recessions and depressions
  • Panic of 1873 and the Long Depression of the 1870s and 1880s affected Canada's economy

Social and Cultural Changes

• Immigration from Europe encouraged to settle the West and provide labor for industrialization
  • Clifford Sifton, Minister of the Interior, promoted immigration of farmers from Central and Eastern Europe
• Assimilation of immigrants and Indigenous peoples into British-Canadian culture and values promoted
  • Residential school system established to "civilize" and Christianize Indigenous children
• Social reforms and movements emerged, such as temperance, women's suffrage, and labor organizing
  • Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and other groups advocated for alcohol prohibition
  • Women's suffrage movement gained momentum, with women seeking the right to vote and participate in politics
• Urbanization and industrialization led to changes in family structures, gender roles, and social classes
  • Growth of urban working class and emergence of urban poverty and slums
• Cultural nationalism and the search for a distinct Canadian identity developed
  • Canada First movement promoted Canadian nationalism and independence from Britain
  • Artists and writers, such as the Group of Seven and Stephen Leacock, explored Canadian themes and landscapes

Indigenous Relations

• Canadian government's relations with Indigenous peoples characterized by paternalism, assimilation, and dispossession
• Numbered Treaties signed between the Crown and Indigenous nations in the West, often under duress or with misleading terms
  • Treaties aimed to open up land for settlement and resource exploitation, while restricting Indigenous rights and confining them to reserves
• Indian Act of 1876 consolidated and expanded earlier legislation, defining Indigenous identity, governance, and rights
  • Act imposed patriarchal and colonial structures on Indigenous communities, undermining traditional governance and gender roles
• Residential school system established to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture
  • Children forcibly removed from their families and communities, subjected to abuse, neglect, and cultural suppression
• Métis resistances, such as the Red River Rebellion (1869-1870) and North-West Rebellion (1885), challenged Canadian authority and assimilation policies
  • Rebellions brutally suppressed by Canadian forces, with leaders like Louis Riel executed
• Gradual erosion of Indigenous land base and traditional ways of life through settler encroachment, resource extraction, and government policies

Foreign Policy and International Relations

• Canada's foreign policy during this period largely shaped by its status as a British colony and dominion
• Relations with the United States marked by both cooperation and tension
  • Reciprocity Treaty (1854-1866) provided for free trade in natural products between the two countries
  • Fenian Raids (1866-1871) by Irish-American nationalists threatened Canada's borders and security
• Canada's participation in the British Empire and imperial conflicts
  • Canadian troops and resources contributed to British military campaigns, such as the Nile Expedition (1884-1885) and the Second Boer War (1899-1902)
• Boundary disputes with the United States resolved through diplomacy and arbitration
  • Alaska boundary dispute settled in favor of the United States in 1903
• Emergence of Canadian autonomy in foreign policy, while still maintaining strong ties to Britain
  • Macdonald's National Policy and protectionist tariffs challenged British free trade principles
  • Canada increasingly asserted its own interests and identity on the international stage

Legacy and Impact

• Macdonald's vision of a strong, centralized federation and a unified Canadian identity shaped the country's development
  • National Policy laid the foundation for Canada's economic growth and western expansion
  • Completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway facilitated national unity and economic integration
• Consolidation of federal power and the suppression of Indigenous and Métis resistances
  • Establishment of the North-West Mounted Police (later the Royal Canadian Mounted Police) to maintain order and assert Canadian sovereignty
• Social and cultural impact of immigration, urbanization, and industrialization
  • Emergence of new social classes, gender roles, and cultural identities
  • Growth of social reform movements and the struggle for women's rights and labor rights
• Legacy of colonialism and assimilation policies on Indigenous peoples
  • Intergenerational trauma, loss of language and culture, and ongoing struggles for self-determination and reconciliation
• Foundation for Canada's future growth and development as a nation
  • Expansion of the country's territory, population, and economic potential
  • Emergence of Canada as a distinct nation within the British Empire, with its own interests and identity

Key Figures and Their Contributions

• Sir John A. Macdonald (1815-1891)
  • Canada's first Prime Minister and a key architect of Confederation
  • Implemented the National Policy and oversaw the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway
  • Controversial legacy, particularly regarding his treatment of Indigenous peoples and his role in the Pacific Scandal
• George-Étienne Cartier (1814-1873)
  • Macdonald's key ally in Quebec and a father of Confederation
  • Played a crucial role in bringing Quebec into Confederation and securing its rights and interests
• Alexander Mackenzie (1822-1892)
  • Leader of the Liberal Party and Prime Minister from 1873 to 1878
  • Advocated for free trade and provincial rights, in opposition to Macdonald's National Policy
• Louis Riel (1844-1885)
  • Métis leader who led the Red River Rebellion (1869-1870) and the North-West Rebellion (1885)
  • Fought for Métis rights and resisted Canadian authority and assimilation policies
  • Executed for treason in 1885, becoming a controversial figure and a symbol of Métis and Indigenous resistance
• Clifford Sifton (1861-1929)
  • Minister of the Interior under Wilfrid Laurier
  • Promoted immigration to settle the West, particularly from Central and Eastern Europe
  • Played a key role in the development of the Prairie provinces and the expansion of agriculture
• Emily Murphy (1868-1933)
  • Women's rights activist and one of the "Famous Five" who fought for women's legal recognition as "persons"
  • Advocated for women's suffrage, property rights, and legal reforms
  • Appointed as the first female magistrate in the British Empire in 1916