3.3 Daoism and Legalism

Ancient China saw the rise of two influential philosophies: Daoism and Legalism. These contrasting schools of thought shaped Chinese society and governance, offering unique perspectives on human nature, social order, and the role of government.

Daoism emphasized harmony with nature and inner peace, rejecting rigid social norms. Legalism, on the other hand, advocated for strict laws and centralized power to maintain order. Their conflicting ideas continue to influence Chinese thought and governance to this day.

Key Principles of Daoism

The Dao and Its Characteristics

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• The Dao, or the Way, is the ultimate reality and the source of all things in the universe
• It is ineffable, eternal, and cannot be fully comprehended by human intellect
• The Dao is characterized by the concept of wu wei, or non-action, which emphasizes acting in accordance with the natural flow of the universe rather than imposing one's will upon it
• The Daoist concept of ziran, or naturalness, emphasizes living in accordance with one's true nature and the natural order of the universe

Yin and Yang

• Yin and yang are complementary forces that represent the dualistic nature of the universe
  • They are interdependent and constantly interacting, with each containing the seed of the other
  • Yin is associated with qualities such as passivity, darkness, femininity, and coolness, while yang is associated with activity, light, masculinity, and warmth
• The balance and harmony between yin and yang are essential for the proper functioning of the universe and the well-being of individuals
• Examples of yin and yang in nature include day and night, sun and moon, and male and female

The Daoist Sage

• The Daoist sage is one who has attained a deep understanding of the Dao and lives in harmony with it
• The sage embodies the principles of wu wei, yin and yang, and ziran
• The sage-ruler governs with minimal interference, allowing the people to live in accordance with their true nature and the natural order of the universe
• Examples of Daoist sages include Laozi, the legendary author of the Daodejing, and Zhuangzi, a prominent Daoist philosopher

Daoist Critique of Confucian Society

Rejection of Confucian Social Norms

• Daoism emerged as a reaction against the rigid social hierarchies and moral codes of Confucianism, which were seen as artificial and constraining
• Daoists criticized the Confucian emphasis on ritual, propriety, and social roles, arguing that these created unnecessary complexity and disrupted the natural order
• Daoism advocated for a simpler, more naturalistic way of life that rejected the pursuit of wealth, power, and status in favor of living in harmony with the Dao

Emphasis on Individual Cultivation and Inner Tranquility

• Daoism emphasized the importance of individual cultivation and the pursuit of inner tranquility, in contrast to the Confucian focus on social harmony and the cultivation of moral character
• Daoists believed that the Confucian preoccupation with human affairs and social engineering led to a disconnection from the natural world and a loss of inner peace
• Examples of Daoist practices for individual cultivation include meditation, breathing exercises (qigong), and the study of Daoist texts such as the Daodejing and Zhuangzi

Central Ideas of Legalism

The Concept of Fa (Law)

• Legalism is a political philosophy that emphasizes the importance of strict laws, harsh punishments, and a strong, centralized state in maintaining social order and stability
• The Legalist concept of fa, or law, holds that human behavior should be regulated by a system of rewards and punishments that apply equally to all members of society, regardless of social status or moral character
• Legalists believed that human nature was inherently selfish and that people could only be motivated to act in the interests of the state through the threat of punishment and the promise of reward

The Ideal Legalist Ruler and State

• The Legalist ideal of the ruler was one who governed through a system of impersonal laws and institutions rather than personal relationships or moral authority
• Legalist thinkers such as Shang Yang and Han Feizi argued that the state should have absolute control over all aspects of society, including the economy, military, and education
• The Qin dynasty, which unified China in 221 BCE, was heavily influenced by Legalist ideas and implemented a centralized bureaucracy, standardized weights and measures, and a harsh penal code

Legalism's Influence on Chinese Governance

• The influence of Legalism can be seen in the emphasis on law and punishment in Chinese governance throughout history, as well as in the centralized structure of the Chinese state
• Examples of Legalist influence include the standardization of writing, currency, and measurements during the Qin dynasty, and the use of a merit-based civil service examination system in later dynasties

Daoism vs Legalism

Contrasting Approaches to Governance and Social Order

• Daoism and Legalism represent two contrasting approaches to governance and social order in ancient China
• Daoism emphasizes the importance of harmony with nature and the cultivation of inner tranquility, while Legalism focuses on the use of strict laws and punishments to maintain social order and stability
• Daoism advocates for a minimalist approach to governance, with the sage-ruler allowing the people to live in accordance with their true nature, while Legalism calls for a strong, centralized state that regulates all aspects of society

Differing Views on Human Nature

• Daoism sees human nature as fundamentally good and argues that people will naturally act in accordance with the Dao if left to their own devices
• Legalism views human nature as inherently selfish and in need of external control through a system of rewards and punishments
• These differing views on human nature lead to contrasting approaches to governance and social order

Influence on Chinese Thought and Governance

• Despite their differences, both Daoism and Legalism have had a significant influence on Chinese thought and governance, with elements of each philosophy being incorporated into various political and social systems throughout history
• The tension between the Daoist emphasis on harmony and simplicity and the Legalist focus on law and punishment has been a recurring theme in Chinese political discourse, reflecting the ongoing debate over the proper balance between individual freedom and state control
• Examples of this tension can be seen in the rise and fall of dynasties, such as the Qin dynasty's strict Legalism giving way to the Han dynasty's more Confucian approach, and in modern debates over the role of the state in Chinese society