4.2 Sengoku period: warring states and daimyō power

The Sengoku period (1467-1615) was a tumultuous era in Japanese history. Constant warfare between regional warlords weakened central authority, leading to the collapse of the Ashikaga shogunate and fragmentation of Japan into numerous feudal domains.

Powerful daimyō emerged as the primary political actors, ruling autonomous regions. They developed local administrative systems, built private armies, and engaged in complex alliances. This period also saw the introduction of firearms, rise of merchant classes, and increased contact with European traders and missionaries.

Political Landscape of Sengoku Japan

Characteristics of Sengoku period

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• 1467-1615 marked by constant warfare between regional warlords
• Ōnin War (1467-1477) triggered era weakening central authority due to shogunal succession dispute
• Ashikaga shogunate collapsed leading to fragmentation of Japan into numerous feudal domains
• Gekokujō (下克上) phenomenon enabled lower-ranking samurai to overthrow superiors causing social upheaval
• Firearms introduced to Japan revolutionizing warfare tactics
• Powerful merchant classes emerged in urban areas driving economic growth
• Increased contact with European traders and missionaries brought new ideas and technologies (Christianity, muskets)

Rise of powerful daimyō

• Regional warlords became primary political actors ruling autonomous domains
• Daimyō developed local administrative systems and created private armies to maintain power
• Complex web of alliances and betrayals between daimyō characterized political landscape
• Castles constructed as centers of military and political power (Himeji Castle, Osaka Castle)
• Cadastral surveys implemented to assess land productivity and tax potential
• Daimyō patronized arts and culture fostering development of unique regional styles (tea ceremony, Noh theater)
• Religious influences shaped domain policies with some supporting Buddhist sects while others persecuted Christians
• Economic developments included encouragement of trade within domains and minting of local currencies

Strategies for unification

• Oda Nobunaga utilized firearms in warfare gaining military advantage
• Nobunaga formed strategic alliances (Azai and Asakura clans) and defeated key rivals (Imagawa clan at Battle of Okehazama, 1560)
• Captured Kyoto installing Ashikaga Yoshiaki as puppet shogun (1568) to legitimize rule
• Destroyed powerful Buddhist strongholds (Siege of Mount Hiei, 1571) to eliminate opposition
• Toyotomi Hideyoshi continued unification after Nobunaga's death
• Hideyoshi besieged Odawara (1590) defeating Hōjō clan and implemented sword hunt (katanagari) to disarm peasantry
• Constructed Osaka Castle as symbol of power and launched invasions of Korea (1592-1598) to expand influence
• Both leaders centralized power through land surveys, redistributed territories, and promoted loyal retainers
• Employed diplomatic negotiations and strategic marriages to secure alliances
• Suppressed rival Buddhist sects and Christian missionaries to consolidate religious control

Impact on common people

• Rural populations displaced by warfare leading to urbanization and growth of castle towns
• Agricultural practices evolved with introduction of new crops (sweet potatoes, corn) and intensified rice cultivation
• Social mobility increased as lower classes rose in status through military service
• Wealthy merchant class emerged in urban areas driving economic growth
• Literacy and education spread among common people popularizing arts (tea ceremony, flower arrangement)
• New Buddhist sects appealing to commoners grew while Christianity gained limited following
• Economic hardships intensified due to increased taxation for military campaigns
• Some rural communities developed self-governance through sō (惣) organizations
• Women's roles expanded in some areas taking on leadership positions or participating in family businesses