🏓History of Modern China Unit 4 – Self-Strengthening and Reform Attempts

What's This Unit About?

• Explores China's efforts to modernize and strengthen itself in the late 19th century
• Focuses on the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895) and various reform attempts
• Examines the goals, strategies, and initiatives of Chinese leaders to address internal weaknesses and external threats
• Discusses the challenges and opposition faced by reformers from conservative elements within China
• Analyzes the successes and failures of the Self-Strengthening Movement and reform efforts
• Places these developments within the broader global context of Western imperialism and influence in Asia
• Assesses the long-term impact of this period on Chinese society, politics, and economy

Key Players and Their Roles

• Empress Dowager Cixi: Powerful regent who initially supported reform efforts but later opposed radical changes
• Prince Gong: Prominent Qing official who led early Self-Strengthening efforts and advocated for modernization
• Li Hongzhang: Important Qing official and military leader who promoted Western-style industrialization and military reforms
  • Established the Jiangnan Arsenal and the China Merchants' Steam Navigation Company
• Zeng Guofan: Confucian scholar and military leader who helped suppress the Taiping Rebellion and supported limited reforms
• Kang Youwei: Prominent intellectual and reformer who advocated for comprehensive political and social reforms (Hundred Days' Reform)
• Liang Qichao: Scholar and journalist who supported Kang Youwei's reform ideas and helped spread them through his writings
• Emperor Guangxu: Young Qing emperor who supported the Hundred Days' Reform but was later placed under house arrest by Cixi

The Self-Strengthening Movement: Goals and Strategies

• Primary goal was to strengthen China's military, economy, and technology to resist foreign encroachment
• Adopted the slogan "Chinese learning for the foundation, Western learning for practical use" (zhongti xiyong)
  • Sought to preserve traditional Confucian values while selectively adopting Western knowledge and technology
• Focused on developing modern industries, particularly in the military sector (arsenals, shipyards)
• Encouraged the study of Western languages, sciences, and engineering through the establishment of schools and translation projects
• Aimed to reform and modernize China's military by adopting Western weapons, tactics, and training methods
• Sought to increase China's wealth and revenue through the promotion of foreign trade and the establishment of modern enterprises
• Attempted to improve infrastructure, such as transportation and communication networks, to facilitate economic growth

Major Reform Attempts and Initiatives

• Establishment of the Zongli Yamen (1861): China's first foreign affairs office, responsible for handling relations with Western powers
• Creation of modern arsenals and shipyards (Jiangnan Arsenal, Fuzhou Navy Yard) to produce Western-style weapons and ships
• Formation of the China Merchants' Steam Navigation Company (1872) to compete with foreign shipping firms
• Establishment of the Tongwen Guan (1862) and other language schools to train Chinese diplomats and translators in Western languages
• Launch of the Hundred Days' Reform (1898) by Kang Youwei and Emperor Guangxu, which proposed sweeping political, educational, and social reforms
  • Reforms included establishing a constitutional monarchy, modernizing the examination system, and promoting industrial development
• Adoption of Western military training and organization through the establishment of military academies and the formation of regional armies

Challenges and Opposition

• Conservative Confucian scholars and officials opposed reforms, fearing the erosion of traditional values and their own power
• Limited understanding of Western technology and ideas among Chinese leaders hindered effective implementation of reforms
• Insufficient financial resources and lack of coordination among regional initiatives hampered the success of Self-Strengthening projects
• Foreign powers, particularly Japan, continued to pressure China and exploit its weaknesses, leading to military defeats (First Sino-Japanese War)
• Empress Dowager Cixi, who initially supported reforms, later turned against radical changes and suppressed the Hundred Days' Reform
• Widespread corruption and inefficiency within the Qing bureaucracy undermined the effectiveness of reform efforts
• Growing anti-foreign sentiment among the Chinese population, fueled by the unequal treaties and foreign privileges, led to resistance against Western-inspired reforms

Successes and Failures

• Successes:
  • Establishment of modern industries and enterprises, such as arsenals, shipyards, and shipping companies
  • Improvement of China's military capabilities through the adoption of Western weapons and training methods
  • Increased awareness among Chinese intellectuals and officials of the need for reform and modernization
  • Development of a small but influential group of Western-educated Chinese who would later contribute to further reforms
• Failures:
  • Limited scope and superficial nature of reforms, which failed to address the underlying political and social issues in China
  • Inability to prevent foreign encroachment and military defeats, as evidenced by the loss of Taiwan to Japan in 1895
  • Suppression of more radical reform attempts, such as the Hundred Days' Reform, by conservative forces within the Qing government
  • Failure to significantly improve China's economic and technological capabilities relative to Western powers and Japan
  • Persistence of widespread poverty, social unrest, and political instability despite reform efforts

Global Context and Foreign Influences

• Western imperialism and the unequal treaty system put pressure on China to modernize and adapt to the changing global order
• The Opium Wars (1839-1842, 1856-1860) and the resulting Treaty of Nanjing exposed China's weaknesses and forced it to open up to foreign trade and influence
• The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) and other internal uprisings further destabilized China and highlighted the need for reforms
• The Meiji Restoration in Japan (1868) provided a model for successful modernization and adaptation to Western challenges
  • Japan's rapid industrialization and military modernization increased the sense of urgency for reforms in China
• Western missionaries and educators introduced new ideas and technologies to China, influencing the reform-minded intellectuals
• The construction of railways, telegraphs, and other modern infrastructure by foreign companies in China exposed the Qing government's weaknesses and inability to modernize independently

Long-Term Impact on Chinese Society

• The limited success of the Self-Strengthening Movement and reform attempts contributed to the growing disillusionment with the Qing dynasty
• The failure of reforms to address pressing issues such as poverty, inequality, and foreign domination fueled revolutionary sentiments
• The ideas and experiences of the reform period laid the groundwork for more radical political and social movements in the early 20th century (Xinhai Revolution)
• The exposure to Western ideas and education during this period created a new generation of Chinese intellectuals who would shape the country's future
• The economic and technological gap between China and the West, despite reform efforts, contributed to China's "Century of Humiliation" and its quest for modernization in the 20th century
• The legacy of the Self-Strengthening Movement and reform attempts influenced later Chinese leaders, such as Deng Xiaoping, in their approach to modernization and engagement with the West