📜History of American Business Unit 1 – Colonial Commerce and Mercantilism

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Mercantilism economic theory that emphasizes maximizing exports, minimizing imports, and accumulating wealth (gold and silver) to increase a nation's power
• Colonialism practice of establishing political and economic control over foreign territories to exploit their resources and markets
• Balance of trade difference between the value of a country's exports and imports aimed to maintain a positive balance (more exports than imports)
• Navigation Acts series of laws passed by the British Parliament to regulate trade with its colonies and protect its shipping industry
• Triangular Trade complex trade route involving the exchange of goods and slaves between Europe, Africa, and the Americas
  • Manufactured goods from Europe traded for slaves in Africa
  • Slaves transported to the Americas and sold for raw materials
  • Raw materials shipped back to Europe for production
• Salutary neglect British policy of lax enforcement of trade regulations in the colonies allowing for greater economic autonomy

Historical Context

• Age of Exploration (15th-17th centuries) European nations sought new trade routes, resources, and territories leading to the establishment of colonies
• Commercial Revolution (16th-18th centuries) marked by the expansion of trade, banking, and manufacturing facilitated by technological advancements (improved navigation, shipbuilding)
• Rise of nation-states centralized governments with strong monarchies emerged in Europe (England, France, Spain) competing for global dominance
• Religious and political rivalries between European powers (Protestant England vs. Catholic Spain and France) fueled colonial expansion and conflicts
• Enlightenment ideas (individual rights, free trade) challenged the mercantilist system and inspired calls for economic and political reforms in the colonies

Major European Powers and Their Colonies

• Spain first European nation to establish colonies in the Americas (Caribbean, Mexico, Central and South America) focused on extracting precious metals (gold, silver)
• Portugal pioneered the transatlantic slave trade and established colonies in Brazil and Africa (Angola, Mozambique) to supply labor for sugar plantations
• France established colonies in North America (New France, Louisiana) and the Caribbean (Haiti, Guadeloupe) focused on the fur trade and sugar production
• Dutch Republic (Netherlands) established trading posts in the Caribbean (Curaçao), North America (New Netherland), and Asia (Dutch East Indies) specialized in the spice trade and financial services
• England latecomers to colonization but established successful colonies in North America (Thirteen Colonies) and the Caribbean (Jamaica, Barbados) focused on tobacco, sugar, and naval stores

Mercantilism: Theory and Practice

• Economic nationalism promoted self-sufficiency and the accumulation of wealth within the nation-state at the expense of other countries
• Colonial trade regulated by the mother country colonies required to trade exclusively with the metropole and supply raw materials in exchange for manufactured goods
  • Colonies prohibited from trading with foreign nations or developing their own industries
  • Colonies served as captive markets for the mother country's products
• Protectionist policies (tariffs, quotas, subsidies) used to shield domestic industries from foreign competition and encourage exports
• Bullionism emphasis on accumulating precious metals (gold, silver) as a measure of a nation's wealth and power led to the exploitation of colonial mines and trade imbalances
• Joint-stock companies (British East India Company, Dutch East India Company) granted monopolies by their governments to manage colonial trade and territories

Trade Routes and Commodities

• Atlantic Trade connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas through the exchange of manufactured goods, slaves, and raw materials
  • Manufactured goods (textiles, firearms, alcohol) from Europe traded for slaves in West Africa
  • Slaves transported to the Americas (Middle Passage) and sold for raw materials (sugar, tobacco, cotton)
  • Raw materials shipped back to Europe for processing and consumption
• Columbian Exchange transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Old World (Europe, Africa, Asia) and the New World (Americas) following Columbus' voyages
  • New crops (maize, potatoes, tomatoes) introduced to Europe and Africa
  • Old World livestock (horses, cattle, pigs) and diseases (smallpox, measles) devastated Native American populations
• Slave trade forcibly transported millions of Africans to the Americas to work on plantations and mines fueling the colonial economies
  • Triangular Trade connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas
  • Transatlantic Slave Trade primarily operated by the Portuguese, Dutch, and English
• Spice trade lucrative commerce in exotic spices (pepper, cinnamon, cloves) from Asia (East Indies) controlled by the Portuguese and Dutch

Impact on Colonial Economies

• Specialization colonies encouraged to focus on producing specific raw materials (cash crops) for export to the mother country leading to a lack of diversification
  • Sugar plantations in the Caribbean
  • Tobacco and cotton in the American South
  • Fur trade in New France
• Dependence on foreign trade colonies relied on imports from the mother country for manufactured goods and credit creating a cycle of debt and underdevelopment
• Unequal exchange colonies received low prices for their raw materials while paying high prices for imported manufactured goods resulting in a transfer of wealth to the mother country
• Limited industrialization colonies discouraged from developing their own manufacturing industries to protect the mother country's interests stunting economic growth
• Rise of the plantation system large-scale agricultural estates producing cash crops (sugar, tobacco, cotton) using slave labor became the dominant economic model in the colonies

Challenges and Controversies

• Smuggling and piracy colonial merchants and pirates engaged in illegal trade to circumvent mercantilist restrictions and monopolies leading to conflicts with colonial authorities
• Slave revolts enslaved Africans resisted their oppression through violent uprisings (Stono Rebellion, Haitian Revolution) challenging the plantation system and colonial rule
• Enlightenment critiques philosophers (Adam Smith, David Hume) criticized mercantilism as inefficient and advocated for free trade and laissez-faire economics
• American Revolution (1765-1783) colonists in British North America rebelled against mercantilist policies (Stamp Act, Tea Act) and fought for independence and free trade
• Abolition movement religious and moral opposition to the slave trade and slavery grew in the late 18th century leading to the gradual abolition of the slave trade and emancipation in the colonies

Legacy and Modern Implications

• Economic development mercantilism and colonialism shaped the economic trajectories of the colonies creating patterns of dependence, inequality, and underdevelopment that persist today
• Globalization the colonial trade networks laid the foundations for modern globalization by connecting distant regions and cultures through the exchange of goods, people, and ideas
• International trade the principles of mercantilism (protectionism, trade surpluses) continue to influence trade policies and negotiations between countries
• Inequality the wealth generated by colonial trade and slavery primarily benefited the European elite and their descendants contributing to lasting social and economic disparities
• Postcolonial relations the legacy of colonialism continues to shape the political and economic relationships between former colonies and their former rulers (foreign aid, trade agreements, cultural influences)