2.1 Greek temples

Greek temples were awe-inspiring structures built to honor the gods. These architectural marvels evolved from simple wooden structures to grand stone edifices, incorporating distinctive elements like columns, entablatures, and pediments.

The temples showcased three main architectural orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each order had unique characteristics, from the simple Doric to the ornate Corinthian, reflecting the cultural and artistic values of ancient Greek civilization.

Origins of Greek temples

• Greek temples were religious structures built to honor the gods and house cult statues
• Evolved from earlier Mycenaean megaron halls and were influenced by Egyptian and Near Eastern architecture
• Early temples were made of wood and mud brick, later replaced by stone for greater permanence and grandeur

Architectural elements of temples

Columns in Greek temples

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• Columns supported the roof and created a peristyle (colonnade) around the cella (main room)
• Three main styles: Doric (simple, fluted), Ionic (scroll-like volutes on capital), and Corinthian (elaborate leaf designs on capital)
• Columns were typically made of stacked stone drums with a capital on top and a base at the bottom
• Spacing and proportions of columns varied by order and over time (Doric columns were stockier, Ionic more slender)

Entablatures of temples

• Entablature refers to the horizontal elements above the columns, consisting of the architrave, frieze, and cornice
• Architrave is the lowest part, a simple beam resting on the column capitals
• Frieze is the middle section, often decorated with sculptural reliefs (Doric frieze had triglyphs and metopes, Ionic frieze was continuous)
• Cornice is the projecting top part, often with ornamental moldings, that sheds rainwater away from the building

Pediments and roofs

• Pediments are the triangular gables at the ends of the roof, formed by the sloping roof and the cornice
• Often decorated with sculptural scenes (e.g. Parthenon pediments depicted the birth of Athena and the contest between Athena and Poseidon)
• Roofs were gently sloped and covered with terracotta or marble tiles
• Acroteria were sculptural ornaments placed at the apex and corners of the pediments (e.g. Nike figures, palmettes, etc.)

Cella or naos

• Cella (also called naos) is the main interior room of the temple that housed the cult statue of the deity
• Usually divided into a front porch (pronaos), the cella proper, and a back room (opisthodomos) used as a treasury
• Proportions of the cella to the surrounding colonnade varied (e.g. Parthenon had a large cella with a double row of columns inside)
• Cella had few windows and was lit mainly by the open doorway and roof openings, creating a mysterious atmosphere

Greek temple typology

Peripteral vs prostyle temples

• Peripteral temples have columns on all four sides (e.g. Parthenon, Temple of Hephaestus)
• Prostyle temples have columns only on the front (e.g. Temple of Athena Nike)
• Amphiprostyle temples have columns on both the front and back, but not the sides
• Number of columns varied (e.g. Parthenon was octastyle with 8 columns on the front)

Dipteral temples

• Dipteral temples have a double row of columns all around (e.g. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus)
• Pseudodipteral temples have a single row of columns with the spacing of a dipteral temple (e.g. Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens)
• Allowed for a grander scale and more spacious interior

Circular tholos temples

• Tholos temples are circular structures with a colonnade all around (e.g. Tholos of Athena Pronaia at Delphi)
• Usually smaller than rectangular temples and used for special functions like housing an eternal flame
• Interior cella was also circular, sometimes with a ring of columns inside (e.g. Philippeion at Olympia)

Architectural orders

Doric order temples

• Oldest and simplest of the orders, developed in the 7th century BCE
• Characterized by fluted columns without bases, plain capitals, and a frieze with triglyphs and metopes
• Proportions were stocky and masculine, conveying strength and solidity
• Examples include the Parthenon, Temple of Hephaestus, and Temple of Apollo at Corinth

Ionic order temples

• Developed in the 6th century BCE in Ionia (modern-day Turkey)
• Characterized by slender fluted columns with scroll-like volute capitals and a continuous frieze
• More elegant and feminine proportions, conveying grace and refinement
• Examples include the Erechtheion in Athens, Temple of Athena Nike, and Temple of Artemis at Ephesus

Corinthian order temples

• Latest order, developed in the 5th century BCE but not widely used until the Hellenistic and Roman periods
• Characterized by slender fluted columns and elaborate capitals with acanthus leaf designs
• Considered the most ornate and luxurious of the orders
• Rare in the Classical period, but an early example is the Tholos of Epidaurus

Construction of Greek temples

Materials used

• Early temples used wood (elm, oak, sandalwood) and mud brick, with terracotta roof tiles
• Stone became the primary material in the 7th century BCE, first limestone and then marble
• Marble allowed for finer details and a lustrous white appearance (e.g. Pentelic marble used in the Parthenon)
• Other materials included ivory and gold for cult statues, bronze for decoration

Building techniques

• Stones were cut and transported from local quarries (e.g. Pentelikon quarry for the Parthenon)
• Blocks were precisely cut and fitted without mortar, held together by iron clamps and dowels
• Columns were built up from cylindrical drums stacked and pegged together
• Wooden cranes, pulleys, and ramps were used to lift and position heavy blocks
• Optical refinements were used to correct visual illusions (e.g. columns slightly swollen in the middle, stylobate curved upwards)

Decoration and sculpture

Metopes and triglyphs

• Metopes are the square panels between the triglyphs in a Doric frieze
• Often decorated with relief sculptures depicting mythological scenes or battles (e.g. Centauromachy, Amazonomachy, Trojan War)
• Triglyphs are the vertical grooved elements separating the metopes, representing the ends of wooden beams
• Typical Doric frieze alternates triglyphs and metopes all around the temple

Pediment sculptures

• Pediments provided a large triangular space for sculptural decoration
• Depicted important mythological scenes related to the temple's deity or the city
• Figures were carved in high relief or fully in the round, often interacting dynamically across the space
• Famous examples include the Parthenon pediments (birth of Athena, contest between Athena and Poseidon) and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (chariot race between Pelops and Oinomaos)

Acroteria ornaments

• Acroteria are the sculptural ornaments placed at the apex and corners of the pediments
• Typically depicted mythological figures, animals, or floral designs
• Apex acroteria were often larger and more elaborate than the corner ones
• Examples include Nike figures, sphinxes, griffins, palmettes, and acanthus leaves
• Acroteria added visual interest to the roofline and helped disguise the roof joints

Famous Greek temples

Parthenon in Athens

• Dedicated to Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin), built 447-432 BCE
• Iconic example of the Doric order, with 8x17 columns and elaborate sculptural decoration
• Housed a colossal gold and ivory statue of Athena by Phidias
• Converted into a church and later a mosque, badly damaged in a 17th-century explosion
• Sculptures taken by Lord Elgin in the early 19th century and now housed in the British Museum

Temple of Hephaestus

• Best-preserved Doric temple, located in the Athenian Agora, built 449-415 BCE
• Dedicated to Hephaestus, god of metalworking and craftsmanship
• Hexastyle (6 columns on the front) and peripteral, with 13 columns on the sides
• Frieze depicts the labors of Heracles and Theseus, Attic heroes and symbols of virtue
• Later used as a Greek Orthodox church, which helped ensure its preservation

Temple of Olympian Zeus

• Largest temple in Greece, located in Athens, built in the 6th century BCE but not completed until the 2nd century CE under Hadrian
• Dedicated to Zeus Olympios (Zeus of Olympus), king of the gods
• Colossal in scale, with 8x20 columns and a length of over 350 feet
• One of the few examples of the Corinthian order in Greece (other than the Olympieion in Athens)
• Influenced the design of many subsequent Roman temples

Temple of Artemis at Ephesus

• One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, located in Ephesus (modern-day Turkey)
• Dedicated to Artemis, goddess of the hunt and fertility
• First built in the 6th century BCE, rebuilt several times after destruction by fire and flood
• Largest known Greek temple, with 8x20 columns in the dipteral arrangement
• Influenced the development of Ionic architecture and inspired many later temples

Influence on later architecture

Roman temple architecture

• Romans adapted Greek temple forms and orders, but with distinct modifications
• Temples often built on high podia with frontal staircases, emphasizing axiality and frontality
• Etruscan elements like deep porches and wide intercolumniations were incorporated
• Engaged columns and pilasters used to articulate walls, blending Greek and Etruscan traditions
• Pantheon in Rome is a famous example of Roman innovation, with its huge concrete dome and oculus

Revival in Neoclassical architecture

• Greek temples were rediscovered and idealized during the Renaissance and Enlightenment
• Neoclassical architects of the 18th-19th centuries imitated and adapted Greek forms for new contexts
• Greek Revival style was popular for public buildings, churches, and mansions in Europe and America
• Examples include the British Museum, the U.S. Capitol, and the Lincoln Memorial
• Helped establish the Greek temple as an enduring symbol of democracy, learning, and high culture