9.2 International Style

The International Style revolutionized architecture in the early 20th century, breaking from tradition to embrace modernism. It emerged from European influences like the Bauhaus school and Le Corbusier's work, rejecting historical styles in favor of functionalism and simplicity.

Key characteristics included an emphasis on volume over mass, regularity instead of symmetry, and the avoidance of ornamentation. The style utilized modern materials like steel and glass, creating buildings that were sleek, transparent, and expressive of their structure.

Origins of International Style

• International Style emerged in the early 20th century as a modernist architectural movement that sought to break away from traditional styles and embrace a new, functional aesthetic
• Influenced by the work of European modernist architects such as Adolf Loos, who advocated for the elimination of ornament in favor of simple, geometric forms
• Rejected historical styles and eclecticism, viewing them as outdated and unsuitable for the modern era

European modernism influence

Top images from around the web for European modernism influence

• 

  File:Bauhaus Dessau-001.jpg - Wikimedia Commons View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Bauhaus Dessau-001.jpg - Wikimedia Commons View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 1

Top images from around the web for European modernism influence

• 

  File:Bauhaus Dessau-001.jpg - Wikimedia Commons View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Bauhaus Dessau-001.jpg - Wikimedia Commons View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 1

• Drew inspiration from the Bauhaus school in Germany, which emphasized the integration of art, craft, and technology in design
• Incorporated principles of the Dutch De Stijl movement, which focused on abstract geometric forms and primary colors
• Influenced by the work of Le Corbusier in France, who championed the use of reinforced concrete and the concept of the "machine for living"

Rejection of historical styles

• Viewed historical styles as irrelevant to the needs and aspirations of modern society
• Sought to create a new architectural language that reflected the spirit of the machine age
• Rejected the use of ornament and decoration, seeing them as superfluous and distracting from the essential function of a building

Focus on functionalism

• Prioritized the functional requirements of a building over aesthetic considerations
• Believed that form should follow function, with the shape and layout of a building determined by its intended use
• Emphasized the efficient use of space and the incorporation of modern amenities such as electricity, plumbing, and heating

Key characteristics

• International Style is characterized by a set of distinctive features that set it apart from earlier architectural styles and reflect its modernist principles
• Emphasis on simplicity, clarity, and functionality, with a rejection of ornament and historical references
• Use of modern industrial materials such as steel, glass, and reinforced concrete, which allowed for greater flexibility in design and construction

Emphasis on volume vs mass

• Focused on the creation of abstract, geometric volumes rather than solid masses
• Used flat roofs, smooth surfaces, and large expanses of glass to create a sense of lightness and transparency
• Employed cantilevered elements and open floor plans to create a feeling of spaciousness and flow

Regularity vs symmetry

• Favored asymmetrical compositions and irregular layouts over strict symmetry
• Used repetitive elements such as windows and columns to create a sense of rhythm and regularity
• Incorporated asymmetrical balance, with elements arranged in a dynamic, visually engaging manner

Avoidance of ornamentation

• Rejected the use of applied ornament and decoration, seeing them as unnecessary and distracting
• Relied on the inherent beauty of materials and the interplay of light and shadow to create visual interest
• Used simple, geometric forms and clean lines to create a sense of clarity and purity

Expressive structure

• Made the structural elements of a building visible and celebrated them as an integral part of the design
• Used exposed steel frames, concrete columns, and load-bearing walls to create a sense of honesty and transparency
• Incorporated structural elements into the aesthetic composition of the building, often using them to define spaces and create visual interest

Modern industrial materials

• Embraced the use of modern industrial materials such as steel, glass, and reinforced concrete
• Exploited the structural and aesthetic properties of these materials to create innovative and expressive designs
• Used large expanses of glass to create a sense of transparency and connection with the outdoors, blurring the boundaries between inside and outside

Notable architects

• International Style was pioneered by a group of influential architects who helped to define its principles and spread its influence around the world
• These architects were united by a shared commitment to modernism and a belief in the transformative power of architecture to shape society and improve people's lives
• Their work helped to establish International Style as a dominant force in 20th-century architecture and inspired generations of architects to follow in their footsteps

Walter Gropius

• German architect and founder of the Bauhaus school, which played a key role in the development of modernist design principles
• Designed the Bauhaus building in Dessau (1925-26), which became an icon of International Style and a model for modernist architecture around the world
• Emigrated to the United States in 1937, where he continued to promote modernist ideas as a professor at Harvard University and through his architectural practice

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

• German-American architect who is widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in the development of International Style
• Known for his minimalist approach to design, with an emphasis on simplicity, clarity, and the use of industrial materials such as steel and glass
• Designed iconic buildings such as the Barcelona Pavilion (1929), the Farnsworth House (1945-51), and the Seagram Building in New York City (1954-58)

Le Corbusier

• Swiss-French architect who was a key figure in the development of modernist architecture and urban planning
• Developed the concept of the "Five Points of Architecture," which became a defining feature of International Style (pilotis, free facade, open floor plan, ribbon windows, roof garden)
• Designed influential buildings such as the Villa Savoye (1928-31) and the Unité d'Habitation in Marseille (1947-52), which exemplified his ideas about modern living and urban design

Significant buildings

• International Style is represented by a number of iconic buildings that exemplify its key principles and have had a lasting impact on the course of modern architecture
• These buildings showcase the innovative use of modern materials, the emphasis on functionality and simplicity, and the rejection of historical styles and ornamentation
• They have become enduring symbols of the modernist movement and continue to inspire architects and designers around the world

Bauhaus in Dessau

• Designed by Walter Gropius in 1925-26 to house the Bauhaus school of design
• Features a distinctive curtain wall facade made of glass and steel, with asymmetrical volumes and flat roofs
• Incorporates functional elements such as workshops, classrooms, and housing for students and faculty, reflecting the Bauhaus philosophy of integrating art, craft, and technology

Villa Savoye

• Designed by Le Corbusier in 1928-31 as a weekend retreat for the Savoye family near Paris
• Exemplifies Le Corbusier's "Five Points of Architecture," with pilotis (columns) lifting the building off the ground, a free facade, an open floor plan, ribbon windows, and a roof garden
• Features a distinctive ramp that winds through the interior, connecting the different levels and creating a sense of flow and continuity

Seagram Building

• Designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Philip Johnson in 1954-58 as the headquarters of the Seagram liquor company in New York City
• Features a minimalist facade of bronze and glass, with a regular grid of windows and I-beams creating a sense of order and clarity
• Incorporates a public plaza in front of the building, creating a sense of openness and connection with the surrounding urban context

Lovell Beach House

• Designed by Austrian-American architect Rudolph Schindler in 1922-26 as a vacation home for the Lovell family in Newport Beach, California
• Features a distinctive concrete frame structure that is left exposed and celebrated as an integral part of the design
• Incorporates large expanses of glass and open living spaces that blur the boundaries between inside and outside, reflecting the informal lifestyle of Southern California

Spread and impact

• International Style quickly spread around the world in the mid-20th century, becoming a dominant force in architecture and urban design
• Its principles were adopted by architects and planners in many different countries, who saw it as a way to create a new, modern built environment that reflected the values and aspirations of the post-war era
• The style had a profound impact on the way cities were built and developed, shaping the skylines and urban landscapes of many major metropolitan areas

Worldwide adoption

• International Style was embraced by architects and planners in Europe, North and South America, Asia, and beyond
• Its principles were adapted to local contexts and building traditions, creating regional variations and hybrids
• The style became associated with the idea of progress and modernity, and was seen as a way to create a new, more equitable and efficient society

Corporate architecture

• International Style became the dominant style for corporate headquarters and office buildings in the mid-20th century
• Its sleek, modern aesthetic and efficient use of space were seen as a reflection of the values and aspirations of the business world
• Examples include the Lever House (1952) and the Seagram Building (1958) in New York City, which set the standard for corporate architecture around the world

Standardization critique

• Some critics argued that the widespread adoption of International Style led to a homogenization and standardization of the built environment
• They saw the style's emphasis on regularity, simplicity, and efficiency as a threat to local identity and cultural diversity
• Others argued that the style's focus on functionality and rationality ignored the emotional and symbolic aspects of architecture, creating a cold and impersonal environment

Urbanism and social housing

• International Style had a significant impact on urban planning and social housing in the mid-20th century
• Its principles were used to create large-scale housing projects and new towns that aimed to provide affordable, modern living environments for the masses
• Examples include the Unité d'Habitation in Marseille (1947-52) and the Pruitt-Igoe housing project in St. Louis (1954-55), which became controversial symbols of the failures of modernist urban planning

Decline and legacy

• By the 1960s and 70s, International Style began to face increasing criticism and a decline in popularity
• Many architects and critics saw the style as having become formulaic and dogmatic, and argued for a return to more expressive and contextual approaches to design
• Despite this decline, International Style has had a lasting impact on the course of modern architecture and continues to inspire and influence architects and designers around the world

Postmodernism reaction

• The rise of postmodernism in the 1970s and 80s was in part a reaction against the perceived limitations and failures of International Style
• Postmodernist architects such as Robert Venturi and Michael Graves sought to reintroduce elements of history, symbolism, and ornament into their designs
• They argued for a more pluralistic and eclectic approach to architecture that celebrated diversity and complexity rather than uniformity and simplicity

Continued influence

• Despite the decline of International Style as a dominant movement, its principles and aesthetics continue to influence contemporary architecture and design
• Many architects today still draw on the style's emphasis on simplicity, functionality, and the expressive use of modern materials
• Examples of contemporary buildings that reflect the legacy of International Style include the High Museum of Art in Atlanta (1983) and the Apple Park campus in Cupertino (2017)

Preservation challenges

• As many buildings designed in the International Style approach the end of their useful lives, preservationists face challenges in conserving and adapting them for contemporary use
• The style's emphasis on functionality and efficiency often resulted in buildings that are difficult to adapt to changing needs and technologies
• Some preservationists argue for the importance of preserving these buildings as important examples of 20th-century architecture, while others see them as obsolete and in need of replacement

International Style vs regionalism

• The spread of International Style around the world has raised questions about the relationship between modernism and local cultural identity
• Some architects and critics have argued for a more regionalist approach to design that takes into account local climate, materials, and building traditions
• Others see International Style as a universal language that can be adapted to different contexts and used to create a more equitable and sustainable built environment
• The tension between the global aspirations of International Style and the desire for local identity and diversity remains a key issue in contemporary architecture and urban design