🌽History of Native Americans in the Southwest Unit 11 – Native American Resistance Movements

Historical Context

• Native American resistance movements emerged in response to centuries of colonization, displacement, and oppression by European settlers and the U.S. government
• Treaties between Native American tribes and the U.S. government were often broken or ignored, leading to further loss of land and resources
• Forced assimilation policies, such as the Indian Boarding School system, aimed to erase Native American culture and identity
• The Indian Removal Act of 1830 led to the forced relocation of many Native American tribes, including the Trail of Tears
• The Dawes Act of 1887 broke up tribal lands into individual allotments, weakening tribal sovereignty and land ownership
• The General Allotment Act of 1887 further reduced Native American land holdings and promoted assimilation
• The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 aimed to restore some tribal sovereignty and land, but its impact was limited

Key Resistance Movements

• The Ghost Dance Movement of the late 19th century was a spiritual and political movement that sought to restore Native American land and way of life
  • The movement was led by the Northern Paiute prophet Wovoka, who taught that performing the Ghost Dance would bring about a new world for Native Americans
  • The U.S. government saw the Ghost Dance as a threat and responded with violence, culminating in the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890
• The American Indian Movement (AIM) was founded in 1968 to advocate for Native American rights and sovereignty
  • AIM organized protests, occupations, and other direct actions to draw attention to issues facing Native American communities
  • The occupation of Alcatraz Island in 1969-1971 was a key event in the history of AIM, symbolizing the reclamation of Native American land and identity
• The Occupation of Wounded Knee in 1973 was another major event organized by AIM, which aimed to address corruption and oppression on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation
• The Indigenous Environmental Network, founded in 1990, focuses on protecting Native American land, water, and resources from environmental threats
  • The network has been involved in resistance to pipeline projects, such as the Dakota Access Pipeline and the Keystone XL Pipeline

Notable Leaders and Figures

• Sitting Bull was a Hunkpapa Lakota chief who led resistance against U.S. government encroachment on Lakota lands
  • He played a key role in the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876, where Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors defeated the U.S. Army
• Geronimo was an Apache leader who led resistance against Mexican and American forces in the late 19th century
  • He led a small group of warriors in raids and battles across the Southwest, evading capture for years
• Dennis Banks was a co-founder of the American Indian Movement and a key leader in the occupation of Wounded Knee
  • He advocated for Native American rights and sovereignty throughout his life, even after facing legal challenges and persecution
• Russell Means was another co-founder of AIM and a prominent activist and actor
  • He participated in the occupation of Alcatraz Island and the Wounded Knee incident, and later ran for the presidency of the Oglala Sioux Tribe
• Winona LaDuke is an Anishinaabe activist, environmentalist, and former vice presidential candidate
  • She has been involved in resistance to pipeline projects and advocates for sustainable development and renewable energy in Native American communities

Strategies and Tactics

• Non-violent resistance, such as protests, marches, and occupations, has been a key strategy in Native American resistance movements
  • These actions aim to draw attention to issues facing Native American communities and put pressure on the government to address them
• Legal challenges and advocacy have also been important tools in Native American resistance
  • Native American tribes and organizations have used the courts to assert their rights and challenge government policies and actions
• Building alliances with other social and political movements has helped to amplify the voices of Native American resistance
  • For example, AIM worked with the Black Panther Party and other civil rights organizations in the 1960s and 1970s
• Media and public outreach have been used to raise awareness of Native American issues and gain support for resistance movements
  • Social media and alternative media outlets have become increasingly important in this regard
• Direct action, such as blockades and occupations, has been used to physically resist and disrupt government and corporate activities on Native American land
  • The Standing Rock protests against the Dakota Access Pipeline in 2016-2017 involved a months-long encampment and direct action to block construction

Cultural and Spiritual Aspects

• Native American resistance movements have often been grounded in cultural and spiritual traditions
  • The Ghost Dance Movement, for example, was a spiritual movement that sought to restore Native American way of life through ritual and prophecy
• Traditional ceremonies and practices, such as sweat lodges and sun dances, have been used to build community and resilience in the face of oppression
  • These practices have also been a way to assert Native American cultural identity and resist assimilation
• The protection of sacred sites and cultural resources has been a key issue in many Native American resistance movements
  • For example, the occupation of Alcatraz Island in 1969 was in part a response to the destruction of Native American cultural sites in the San Francisco Bay Area
• The revival and preservation of Native American languages has been an important aspect of cultural resistance
  • Many Native American languages were suppressed or lost due to forced assimilation policies, and language revitalization efforts have been a way to reclaim cultural identity
• Art, music, and literature have also been important forms of cultural resistance for Native American communities
  • These creative expressions have been used to tell Native American stories, preserve cultural traditions, and challenge dominant narratives

Impact on Native American Rights

• Native American resistance movements have helped to raise awareness of issues facing Native American communities and put pressure on the government to address them
  • The occupation of Alcatraz Island, for example, led to increased funding for Native American education and the return of some surplus federal lands to Native American tribes
• The American Indian Movement and other organizations have successfully advocated for the recognition of Native American treaty rights and sovereignty
  • The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 was a key victory in this regard, giving Native American tribes greater control over their own affairs
• Native American resistance has also led to the protection of sacred sites and cultural resources
  • The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990, for example, requires federal agencies and institutions that receive federal funding to return Native American cultural items and human remains to their respective tribes
• Resistance movements have helped to challenge and change public perceptions of Native American communities and issues
  • The increased visibility of Native American activists and leaders has helped to counter stereotypes and misconceptions about Native American people and cultures
• However, many of the underlying issues that Native American resistance movements have sought to address, such as poverty, discrimination, and land rights, remain ongoing challenges for Native American communities today

Government Responses

• The U.S. government has often responded to Native American resistance with violence and repression
  • The Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890, for example, was a direct response to the Ghost Dance Movement and resulted in the deaths of hundreds of Lakota men, women, and children
• The government has also used legal and political means to undermine Native American resistance and sovereignty
  • The Termination Era of the 1950s and 1960s, for example, sought to end the federal government's recognition of Native American tribes and assimilate Native Americans into mainstream society
• In some cases, the government has made concessions or reforms in response to Native American resistance
  • The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, for example, was a response to criticism of the Dawes Act and other assimilationist policies, and sought to restore some measure of tribal sovereignty and land ownership
• However, government responses to Native American resistance have often been limited or inadequate in addressing the underlying issues facing Native American communities
  • The government has often failed to honor treaties, protect Native American land and resources, or provide adequate funding and support for Native American programs and services
• Native American resistance movements have continued to push for greater government accountability and action on issues such as land rights, environmental protection, and social and economic justice

Legacy and Modern Implications

• Native American resistance movements have had a lasting impact on Native American communities and the broader American society
  • The American Indian Movement and other organizations have helped to inspire a new generation of Native American activists and leaders
• The legacy of Native American resistance can be seen in ongoing struggles for land rights, environmental justice, and cultural preservation
  • The Standing Rock protests against the Dakota Access Pipeline, for example, drew on the history and tactics of earlier Native American resistance movements
• Native American resistance has also helped to shape public discourse and policy on issues such as environmental protection, social justice, and Indigenous rights
  • The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, adopted in 2007, was influenced by the advocacy and resistance of Native American and other Indigenous groups around the world
• However, Native American communities continue to face significant challenges, including poverty, discrimination, and the ongoing effects of historical trauma and oppression
  • Native American youth, in particular, face high rates of suicide, substance abuse, and other mental health issues, in part due to the legacy of forced assimilation and cultural loss
• Native American resistance movements today are working to address these challenges and build on the legacy of earlier struggles for self-determination and cultural survival
  • This includes efforts to revitalize Native American languages and cultural practices, protect sacred sites and resources, and advocate for greater political and economic sovereignty
• The story of Native American resistance is ongoing, and its legacy continues to shape the lives and struggles of Native American communities in the Southwest and beyond