🌽History of Native Americans in the Southwest Unit 8 – Mexican Independence: Shifting Borders

Key Players and Groups

• Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest, initiated the Mexican War of Independence in 1810 with his famous "Grito de Dolores" speech
• José María Morelos, a priest and key leader of the independence movement, took over after Hidalgo's execution in 1811
• Agustín de Iturbide, a royalist-turned-insurgent, played a crucial role in the final stages of the war and briefly served as Emperor of Mexico
• Guadalupe Victoria, born José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix, became the first President of Mexico after independence
  • Served as president from 1824 to 1829
• Vicente Guerrero, a leading general in the independence movement, became the second President of Mexico and abolished slavery
• The Criollos, Mexican-born Spaniards, were a key group in the push for independence as they sought political and economic power
• Indigenous peoples, such as the Aztecs, Mayans, and other Native American groups, participated in the struggle for independence

Timeline of Events

• 1808: Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion of Spain and the capture of King Ferdinand VII sparks a political crisis in New Spain (Mexico)
• 1810: Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla issues the "Grito de Dolores," marking the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence on September 16th
• 1811: Hidalgo is executed by Spanish authorities, and leadership of the movement passes to José María Morelos
• 1813: Morelos convenes the Congress of Chilpancingo, which drafts the first constitution for an independent Mexico
• 1815: Morelos is captured and executed by the Spanish, dealing a blow to the independence movement
• 1820: The liberal revolution in Spain forces King Ferdinand VII to reinstate the Constitution of 1812, which sparks renewed interest in independence among Mexicans
• 1821: Agustín de Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero sign the Plan of Iguala, uniting former royalists and insurgents in the push for independence
  • The Plan of Iguala established Mexico as an independent constitutional monarchy
• 1821: The Treaty of Córdoba is signed, recognizing Mexico's independence from Spain on August 24th
• 1822: Agustín de Iturbide is crowned Emperor of Mexico, but his rule is short-lived due to political instability and opposition
• 1823: Iturbide abdicates the throne, and Mexico becomes a republic
• 1824: The Constitution of 1824 is adopted, establishing Mexico as a federal republic with Guadalupe Victoria as its first president

Causes and Motivations

• The Enlightenment ideas of liberty, equality, and self-governance influenced the desire for independence among Mexicans
• The political crisis in Spain following Napoleon's invasion in 1808 created a power vacuum and opportunity for the independence movement
• Economic inequality and resentment towards Spanish colonial rule, particularly among Criollos and indigenous peoples, fueled the push for independence
  • Criollos were frustrated by their lack of political power and representation in the colonial government
  • Indigenous peoples sought to end the exploitation and oppression they experienced under Spanish rule
• The example of the successful American Revolution (1765-1783) inspired Mexicans to seek their own independence
• The desire to establish a more equitable society and end the racial and social hierarchies of the colonial era motivated many to support independence
• The Catholic Church played a significant role in the independence movement, with priests like Hidalgo and Morelos leading the charge
  • These priest-leaders saw independence as a means to address the social and economic injustices faced by their parishioners
• Nationalism and the desire to create a distinct Mexican identity separate from Spain contributed to the growing support for independence

Impact on Native American Communities

• The Mexican War of Independence disrupted traditional power structures and alliances between Native American communities and the Spanish colonial government
• Some Native American groups, such as the Tlaxcalans and the Comanches, initially supported the Spanish against the insurgents to maintain their privileged positions
• Other Native American communities, particularly those that had faced exploitation and oppression under Spanish rule, sided with the independence movement in hopes of securing greater autonomy and rights
• The instability and violence of the war years led to the displacement and migration of many Native American communities
• After independence, the new Mexican government sought to integrate Native American communities into the nation-state, often through policies of assimilation and land redistribution
  • These policies had mixed results, with some communities benefiting from greater political participation and land ownership, while others faced continued marginalization and loss of traditional lands
• The secularization of mission lands in the 1830s had a significant impact on Native American communities in the Southwest, as they lost access to the resources and protection provided by the missions
• The shifting borders and territorial changes following independence created new challenges and opportunities for Native American communities in the Southwest, as they navigated relationships with the Mexican government and, later, the United States

Territorial Changes and Border Shifts

• Mexico's independence from Spain in 1821 led to the establishment of a new nation that encompassed a vast territory, including present-day Mexico, Central America, and the southwestern United States
• The Treaty of Córdoba (1821) and the Plan of Iguala (1821) established the initial borders of independent Mexico, which extended from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Oregon Country to the border with Guatemala
• The United States' recognition of Mexico's independence in 1822 and the Monroe Doctrine (1823) helped to solidify Mexico's borders and deter European intervention in the Americas
• The Texas Revolution (1835-1836) and the subsequent annexation of Texas by the United States in 1845 marked a significant loss of territory for Mexico and a shift in the balance of power in the region
• The Mexican-American War (1846-1848) resulted in further territorial losses for Mexico, with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848
  • Under the treaty, Mexico ceded over half of its territory to the United States, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming
• The Gadsden Purchase of 1853 further adjusted the border between the United States and Mexico, with the U.S. acquiring additional territory in present-day southern Arizona and New Mexico
• These territorial changes and border shifts had significant consequences for Native American communities in the Southwest, as they found themselves under the jurisdiction of new national governments and facing new policies and pressures

Cultural and Social Transformations

• Mexican independence brought about a shift in the racial and social hierarchies of the colonial era, with the abolition of the casta system and the promotion of a more inclusive national identity
• The new Mexican government sought to create a sense of national unity and pride through the promotion of symbols, such as the Mexican flag and the eagle and serpent emblem
• The Catholic Church, which had played a significant role in the independence movement, continued to be a major influence in Mexican society and politics after independence
  • However, the church's power and privileges were gradually reduced through a series of reforms in the 19th century, including the secularization of mission lands and the separation of church and state
• The independence movement and subsequent nation-building efforts led to a flourishing of Mexican art, literature, and intellectual life, as Mexicans sought to define and express their distinct cultural identity
• The incorporation of indigenous elements into Mexican national identity and culture, such as the valorization of pre-Hispanic civilizations and the adoption of indigenous symbols and motifs, reflected a desire to create a more inclusive and authentic Mexican identity
• The economic and political instability of the early independence period, as well as the territorial losses to the United States, contributed to a sense of national trauma and a desire to assert Mexico's sovereignty and modernize the country
• The influx of American settlers and the growth of the American presence in the Southwest following the Mexican-American War led to cultural tensions and the marginalization of Mexican and Native American communities in the region

Legacy and Long-Term Consequences

• Mexican independence marked the end of three centuries of Spanish colonial rule and the beginning of Mexico's journey as an independent nation
• The legacy of the independence movement and the struggles of the early independence period continue to shape Mexican national identity and politics to this day
• The territorial losses to the United States, particularly the loss of Texas and the Mexican Cession, remain a source of national trauma and resentment in Mexico
  • These events have influenced Mexico's foreign policy and relations with the United States, as well as the experiences of Mexican Americans and other Latino communities in the United States
• The impact of independence and subsequent territorial changes on Native American communities in the Southwest has been complex and varied, with some communities experiencing greater autonomy and political participation, while others have faced continued marginalization and loss of land and resources
• The cultural and social transformations set in motion by independence, such as the promotion of a more inclusive national identity and the incorporation of indigenous elements into Mexican culture, continue to shape Mexican society and politics
• The economic and political challenges faced by Mexico in the decades following independence, including political instability, foreign intervention, and the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a few, have had long-lasting effects on the country's development and governance
• The legacy of Mexican independence and the events of the 19th century continue to be a subject of historical research, debate, and reinterpretation, as scholars and the public seek to understand the complex and multifaceted nature of this pivotal period in Mexican and North American history

Debates and Controversies

• The role and motivations of key figures in the independence movement, such as Miguel Hidalgo and Agustín de Iturbide, have been the subject of historical debate and interpretation
  • Some scholars argue that these leaders were primarily motivated by personal ambition or class interests, while others emphasize their commitment to the ideals of independence and social justice
• The extent to which the independence movement was a popular uprising or a elite-led revolution has been a point of contention among historians
  • Some argue that the movement was driven primarily by the interests and actions of Criollos and other elites, while others emphasize the participation and agency of indigenous peoples and other marginalized groups
• The impact of independence on indigenous communities and the question of whether independence represented a true break from colonial-era inequalities and exploitation has been a subject of scholarly debate
  • Some historians argue that independence did little to improve the lives of indigenous peoples, while others point to examples of greater political participation and autonomy in the post-independence period
• The role of the United States in the Texas Revolution and the Mexican-American War, and the legality and morality of these conflicts, remain controversial topics in both Mexican and American historiography
• The legacy of the territorial losses and border changes resulting from these conflicts, and their impact on Mexican American and Native American communities in the Southwest, continues to be a source of debate and political tension
• The extent to which Mexican independence and subsequent nation-building efforts succeeded in creating a stable, democratic, and equitable society has been a subject of critical analysis and debate among scholars and the public
• The place of the independence movement and the 19th century in Mexican historical memory and national identity, and the ways in which these events have been commemorated, celebrated, or contested, reflect ongoing debates about the meaning and significance of this pivotal period in Mexican history