🎭History of Theatre I Unit 2 – Greek Tragedy: Origins and Key Playwrights

Origins and Context

• Greek tragedy emerged in Athens during the 6th century BCE as part of the City Dionysia festival honoring Dionysus, the god of wine, fertility, and theatre
• Developed from the dithyramb, a choral hymn sung and danced in honor of Dionysus
  • Dithyrambs were performed by a chorus of up to 50 men and boys
• The first recorded tragedy was performed in 534 BCE by Thespis, who is credited with introducing the first actor separate from the chorus
• Greek tragedy reached its height during the 5th century BCE, coinciding with the golden age of Athens under the rule of Pericles
• Tragedies were performed in outdoor amphitheaters, such as the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, which could seat up to 17,000 spectators
• Plays were funded by wealthy sponsors (choregoi) and were attended by all citizens, including women and slaves
• Tragedies were performed as part of a trilogy, followed by a satirical play called a satyr play, which provided comic relief and a connection to the festival's Dionysian origins

Key Characteristics

• Greek tragedies were based on mythological stories or historical events and often dealt with weighty themes such as fate, justice, and the relationship between gods and mortals
• Plays typically featured a small number of characters, usually no more than three actors who played multiple roles by changing masks and costumes
• The chorus played a crucial role in Greek tragedy, serving as a collective character that commented on the action, provided background information, and expressed the emotions and reactions of the audience
  • The chorus performed in the orchestra, a circular space in front of the stage, and often engaged in dialogue with the characters
• Tragedies adhered to the three unities of action, time, and place, meaning the plot should have a single main action, occur within a 24-hour timeframe, and take place in a single location
• The plays often featured a tragic hero, a character of noble birth whose downfall is caused by a tragic flaw (hamartia) or an error in judgment
• The plot structure of Greek tragedies typically included a prologue, episodes separated by choral odes (stasima), and an exodos (the final scene)
• The language of Greek tragedy was elevated and poetic, featuring complex metaphors, vivid imagery, and philosophical reflections
• Music and dance were integral components of the performances, with the chorus singing and moving in unison to underscore the emotional content of the play

Major Playwrights

• Aeschylus (c. 525-456 BCE)
  • Considered the father of Greek tragedy
  • Introduced the second actor, allowing for greater dramatic complexity and dialogue
  • Known for his grand, majestic style and the Oresteia trilogy
• Sophocles (c. 496-406 BCE)
  • Introduced the third actor and reduced the role of the chorus
  • Known for his complex characters, irony, and the exploration of human nature
  • Famous works include Oedipus Rex, Antigone, and Electra
• Euripides (c. 480-406 BCE)
  • Known for his unconventional approach to myth, realistic characters, and the exploration of human psychology
  • Introduced the deus ex machina, a plot device in which a god appears at the end of the play to resolve the conflict
  • Notable works include Medea, The Bacchae, and Hippolytus
• These three playwrights dominated the Athenian stage during the 5th century BCE and are the only Greek tragedians whose complete works have survived

Notable Works

• Aeschylus' Oresteia trilogy (Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, The Eumenides)
  • Explores the curse on the House of Atreus and the establishment of the Athenian court system
• Sophocles' Oedipus Rex
  • Tells the story of Oedipus, who unknowingly kills his father and marries his mother, fulfilling a tragic prophecy
• Sophocles' Antigone
  • Depicts the conflict between Antigone and her uncle Creon over the burial of her brother, highlighting the tension between divine law and human law
• Euripides' Medea
  • Portrays Medea's revenge against her unfaithful husband Jason by killing their children
• Euripides' The Bacchae
  • Explores the consequences of denying the power of Dionysus through the story of King Pentheus and his punishment by the god
• These works exemplify the key themes, conventions, and innovations of Greek tragedy and continue to be performed and adapted in modern times

Themes and Motifs

• Fate and free will
  • The tension between the characters' attempts to assert their free will and the inevitability of their fate as determined by the gods or oracles
• Divine justice and human responsibility
  • The consequences of characters' actions and the role of the gods in meting out justice or punishment
• The nature of suffering
  • The exploration of the causes and effects of human suffering, often as a result of a character's tragic flaw or error in judgment
• The relationship between mortals and gods
  • The power dynamics between humans and deities and the consequences of defying or disrespecting the gods
• The importance of family and kinship
  • The central role of familial bonds, obligations, and conflicts in the lives of the characters
• The conflict between individual and society
  • The tension between a character's personal desires or beliefs and the expectations or norms of their society
• The destructive power of pride (hubris)
  • The downfall of characters who exhibit excessive pride or arrogance, often leading to their transgression against the gods or societal norms
• These themes and motifs recur throughout Greek tragedy, reflecting the cultural values, beliefs, and concerns of ancient Athenian society

Theatrical Conventions

• The use of masks
  • Actors wore distinctive masks to indicate their character's age, gender, social status, and emotional state
  • Masks allowed a small number of actors to play multiple roles and enhanced the visual and emotional impact of the performances
• The skene
  • A wooden structure behind the stage that served as a backdrop and a changing room for the actors
  • The skene often represented a palace, temple, or other significant location in the play
• The mechane
  • A crane-like device used to lift actors playing gods or heroes, representing their descent from the heavens or ascent from the underworld
• The ekkyklema
  • A wheeled platform used to reveal the results of off-stage action, such as a dead body or a tableau of characters
• The use of costumes
  • Actors wore long robes, padding, and high heels to increase their size and presence on stage
  • Costumes were color-coded to represent character types (e.g., purple for royalty, black for mourners)
• The role of music and dance
  • The chorus performed intricate dance movements and sang odes accompanied by the aulos (a double-reed instrument) and the lyre
  • Music and dance heightened the emotional intensity of the performances and provided a rhythmic structure to the play
• These conventions were an integral part of the Greek tragic theatre experience, shaping the way stories were presented and received by the audience

Cultural Impact

• Greek tragedy played a significant role in shaping the cultural identity of ancient Athens
  • The City Dionysia festival was a major civic event that brought together citizens from all walks of life to celebrate their shared history, myths, and values
• Tragedies served as a form of public education, exploring complex moral and philosophical questions and encouraging critical reflection on societal norms and values
• The plays often addressed contemporary political issues, such as the Peloponnesian War, and provided a forum for public debate and discussion
• The competitive nature of the tragic contests, in which playwrights vied for prizes awarded by a panel of judges, spurred innovation and excellence in dramatic writing and performance
• The works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides became part of the Athenian cultural canon and were studied, performed, and adapted long after their initial presentations
• Greek tragedy influenced the development of Western literature, theatre, and art, serving as a model for later dramatic forms such as Elizabethan tragedy and French neoclassical drama
• The themes, characters, and conflicts of Greek tragedy continue to resonate with modern audiences, as evidenced by the numerous adaptations and reinterpretations of these works in contemporary theatre, film, and literature
• The enduring legacy of Greek tragedy testifies to its power to capture the human experience and to provoke profound emotional and intellectual responses

Legacy and Influence

• Greek tragedy has had a lasting impact on Western theatre and literature, inspiring countless playwrights, authors, and artists across the centuries
• The works of Shakespeare, particularly his tragedies (Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear), drew heavily from the themes, characters, and structures of Greek tragedy
  • Shakespeare's tragic heroes, such as Hamlet and Macbeth, exhibit the same fatal flaws and struggle with similar moral dilemmas as their Greek counterparts
• French neoclassical playwrights, such as Racine and Corneille, sought to emulate the style and conventions of Greek tragedy, adhering to the unities of action, time, and place
• Modern playwrights, such as Eugene O'Neill (Mourning Becomes Electra), Jean Anouilh (Antigone), and Sarah Kane (Phaedra's Love), have adapted and reimagined Greek tragedies to address contemporary issues and sensibilities
• The influence of Greek tragedy extends beyond the realm of theatre, informing the work of philosophers, psychologists, and political theorists
  • Aristotle's Poetics, a treatise on dramatic theory, draws heavily from the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides to define the key elements of tragedy
  • Sigmund Freud's theories of the Oedipus complex and the unconscious mind were inspired by his readings of Sophocles' Oedipus Rex
• Greek tragedy continues to be performed and studied worldwide, serving as a touchstone for exploring the human condition and the enduring questions of existence
• The legacy of Greek tragedy is a testament to the universality and timelessness of its themes, characters, and conflicts, and to the enduring power of theatre to move, challenge, and transform audiences