8.2 Civil rights movement

The civil rights movement in Appalachia was part of the broader struggle for racial equality in America. Activists challenged entrenched discrimination and segregation, drawing inspiration from national leaders while developing strategies for the region's unique challenges.

Racial discrimination was widespread in Appalachian communities, with African Americans facing segregation and limited opportunities. Grassroots activists played a crucial role, organizing campaigns for desegregation, voting rights, and economic justice alongside national civil rights organizations.

Origins of civil rights movement

• The civil rights movement in Appalachia emerged as part of the broader struggle for racial equality in the United States, with activists challenging deeply entrenched systems of discrimination and segregation
• Appalachian civil rights activists drew inspiration and support from national leaders and organizations, while also developing their own strategies and tactics tailored to the unique challenges of the region

Racial discrimination in Appalachia

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• Racial discrimination was widespread in Appalachian communities, with African Americans facing segregation in schools, public accommodations, and housing
• Black Appalachians were often excluded from economic opportunities and political participation, with limited access to education, healthcare, and other essential services
• Racial violence and intimidation were common, with lynchings, beatings, and other forms of brutality used to enforce white supremacy and maintain the racial hierarchy

Influence of national civil rights leaders

• National civil rights leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, and Malcolm X provided inspiration and guidance to Appalachian activists
• Organizations like the NAACP, SCLC, and SNCC offered resources, training, and support to local civil rights campaigns
• Appalachian activists adapted the strategies and tactics of the national movement to the specific needs and challenges of their communities

Role of grassroots activists

• Grassroots activists played a crucial role in organizing and mobilizing Appalachian communities for civil rights
• Local leaders and organizations, such as the Eastern Kentucky Social Club and the West Virginia NAACP, led campaigns for desegregation, voting rights, and economic justice
• Women activists, including Anne Braden and Septima Clark, were instrumental in building grassroots support and developing community-based education programs

Key events and milestones

• The civil rights movement in Appalachia was marked by a series of pivotal events and milestones that challenged the status quo and pushed for change
• These events, which included legal battles, direct action protests, and voter registration drives, helped to galvanize support for the movement and bring national attention to the struggle for racial equality in the region

Brown v. Board of Education

• The 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education, which declared segregated schools unconstitutional, had a significant impact on Appalachian education systems
• Despite the ruling, many Appalachian school districts resisted integration, with some closing schools altogether rather than desegregating
• Civil rights activists in Appalachia fought to enforce the Brown decision and ensure equal access to education for African American students

Integration of schools in Appalachia

• The integration of Appalachian schools was a long and contentious process, with many white communities fiercely resisting desegregation
• In some cases, such as in Clinton, Tennessee, the integration of schools led to violent protests and attacks on African American students
• Appalachian civil rights activists worked to support and protect students during the integration process, and to challenge ongoing discrimination and inequities in the education system

Sit-ins and protests

• Sit-ins and other forms of direct action protest were a key tactic of the civil rights movement in Appalachia, with activists challenging segregation in restaurants, stores, and other public accommodations
• In 1960, students from Kentucky State College staged sit-ins at segregated lunch counters in Frankfort, sparking similar protests across the state
• Appalachian activists also participated in national campaigns, such as the Freedom Rides and the March on Washington, to pressure the federal government to take action on civil rights

Voting rights campaigns

• Voting rights were a central focus of the civil rights movement in Appalachia, with activists working to overcome barriers to political participation for African Americans
• In some Appalachian states, such as West Virginia, activists successfully challenged discriminatory voting laws and practices through litigation and grassroots organizing
• The 1965 Voting Rights Act, which prohibited racial discrimination in voting, was a major victory for Appalachian civil rights activists, although challenges to voting access persist in the region today

Prominent Appalachian civil rights figures

• The civil rights movement in Appalachia was led by a diverse group of activists, organizers, and leaders who worked tirelessly to challenge injustice and push for change
• These figures, who came from a range of backgrounds and communities, played critical roles in shaping the direction and impact of the movement in the region

Anne Braden

• Anne Braden was a white civil rights activist from Kentucky who worked to challenge racism and segregation in Appalachia
• Braden and her husband Carl were involved in a landmark housing desegregation case in Louisville in the 1950s, which led to their being targeted by white supremacists and charged with sedition
• Braden continued to be a vocal advocate for racial justice throughout her life, working with organizations like the Southern Conference Educational Fund and the Kentucky Alliance Against Racist and Political Repression

Septima Clark

• Septima Clark was an African American educator and civil rights activist from South Carolina who played a key role in developing citizenship education programs for the Southern Christian Leadership Conference
• Clark's work focused on empowering African American communities through literacy and political education, with a particular emphasis on training women leaders
• In the 1950s and 60s, Clark worked with the Highlander Folk School in Tennessee to develop leadership training programs for civil rights activists across the South, including in Appalachia

Myles Horton and Highlander Folk School

• Myles Horton was a white educator and activist who founded the Highlander Folk School in Tennessee in the 1930s
• Highlander was a center for social justice education and organizing, with a focus on labor rights, civil rights, and Appalachian issues
• In the 1950s and 60s, Highlander played a key role in the civil rights movement, hosting workshops and training sessions for activists like Rosa Parks, John Lewis, and Martin Luther King Jr.
• Highlander also worked to support local civil rights campaigns in Appalachian communities, providing resources and training to grassroots organizers

Challenges faced by activists

• Civil rights activists in Appalachia faced significant challenges and obstacles in their work, including violence, intimidation, and resistance from white communities
• These challenges required activists to develop resilience, creativity, and strategic savvy in order to continue pushing for change in the face of adversity

Violence and intimidation

• White supremacist violence was a constant threat for civil rights activists in Appalachia, with activists facing physical attacks, bombings, and other forms of intimidation
• In 1968, a group of Ku Klux Klan members bombed the home of a black family in Chattanooga, Tennessee, injuring several people and destroying the house
• Civil rights leaders like Anne Braden and Myles Horton were targeted with death threats, surveillance, and other forms of harassment by white supremacist groups and law enforcement agencies

Resistance from white communities

• Many white communities in Appalachia strongly resisted desegregation and civil rights activism, viewing these efforts as a threat to their power and privilege
• White resistance took many forms, from legal challenges to school integration to economic retaliation against black businesses and workers
• In some cases, white moderates and political leaders who claimed to support civil rights in principle actively worked to undermine or delay progress on issues like voting rights and housing desegregation

Economic and social barriers

• Appalachian civil rights activists also had to contend with the region's deeply entrenched economic and social inequalities, which posed significant barriers to progress
• Many black Appalachians lived in poverty, with limited access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities
• The region's economy was largely controlled by white-owned coal companies and other extractive industries, which had a history of exploiting and discriminating against black workers
• Activists worked to challenge these systemic inequalities through a range of strategies, from union organizing to community development initiatives

Impact on Appalachian communities

• The civil rights movement had a profound impact on Appalachian communities, transforming social, political, and economic relations in the region
• While the movement achieved significant victories in areas like desegregation and voting rights, ongoing struggles for racial justice and equality continue to shape Appalachian politics and culture today

Desegregation of public spaces

• One of the most visible impacts of the civil rights movement in Appalachia was the desegregation of public spaces, from schools and libraries to parks and swimming pools
• Activists successfully challenged segregation laws and practices through a combination of legal action, direct action protests, and community organizing
• The desegregation of public accommodations and facilities represented a major victory for the movement, helping to break down long-standing barriers to social and cultural participation for black Appalachians

Increased political representation

• The civil rights movement also helped to increase political representation for African Americans in Appalachia, with activists working to challenge voter suppression and elect black candidates to local and state offices
• In 1966, Edward Brooke became the first African American elected to the U.S. Senate since Reconstruction, representing Massachusetts but with roots in West Virginia
• The election of black officials at the local level, from city councils to school boards, helped to shift power dynamics in Appalachian communities and provide a greater voice for African American concerns and priorities

Ongoing struggles for equality

• Despite the gains made by the civil rights movement, Appalachian communities continue to face significant challenges around racial justice and equality
• Economic disparities persist, with African Americans in the region experiencing higher rates of poverty, unemployment, and health problems compared to white residents
• Issues like environmental racism, police brutality, and mass incarceration continue to disproportionately impact black Appalachian communities
• Activists and community leaders are working to address these ongoing challenges through a range of strategies, from grassroots organizing to policy advocacy and cultural production

Legacy and contemporary issues

• The legacy of the civil rights movement in Appalachia continues to shape the region's politics, culture, and social relations in complex ways
• While the movement achieved significant victories and transformed the lives of many black Appalachians, ongoing struggles for racial justice and equality remain central to contemporary Appalachian activism and advocacy

Achievements of civil rights movement

• The civil rights movement in Appalachia helped to dismantle legal segregation and challenge deeply entrenched systems of racial oppression and discrimination
• Activists successfully pushed for the integration of schools, public accommodations, and other institutions, while also working to increase black political participation and representation
• The movement also helped to inspire a broader cultural and political awakening around issues of social justice and human rights, both within Appalachia and across the United States

Persistent racial disparities in Appalachia

• Despite the gains made by the civil rights movement, significant racial disparities persist in many Appalachian communities today
• African Americans in the region continue to experience higher rates of poverty, unemployment, and health problems compared to white residents, with limited access to education, healthcare, and other essential services
• Issues like environmental racism, police brutality, and mass incarceration continue to disproportionately impact black Appalachian communities, reflecting ongoing systems of structural inequality and discrimination

Continued activism and advocacy

• Contemporary Appalachian activists and community leaders are working to build on the legacy of the civil rights movement and address ongoing challenges around racial justice and equality
• Organizations like Kentuckians For The Commonwealth, the Ohio Valley Environmental Coalition, and the West Virginia NAACP are leading campaigns around issues like voting rights, environmental justice, and criminal justice reform
• Activists are also working to celebrate and preserve the history and culture of black Appalachia, through initiatives like the Eastern Kentucky African American Migration Project and the Affrilachian Poets collective
• By connecting the struggles of the past to the challenges of the present, Appalachian activists are working to create a more just and equitable future for all communities in the region