🗳️Honors US Government Unit 4 – The Judicial Branch

Structure and Organization

• The US judicial system consists of a three-tiered structure with the Supreme Court at the top, followed by the Courts of Appeals and the District Courts
• The Supreme Court is the highest court in the nation and has the final say on matters of constitutional interpretation and federal law
• There are 13 Courts of Appeals, also known as Circuit Courts, which handle appeals from the District Courts within their geographic jurisdiction
  • The Courts of Appeals are divided into 12 regional circuits, each covering a specific geographic area, plus the Federal Circuit which has nationwide jurisdiction over certain types of cases
• The 94 District Courts are the trial courts of the federal system where cases are initially heard and decided by a judge or jury
• Specialized courts, such as the Court of International Trade and the Court of Federal Claims, handle specific types of cases within their designated jurisdiction

Key Players and Roles

• The Chief Justice of the United States is the head of the federal judiciary and presides over the Supreme Court
  • The current Chief Justice is John G. Roberts, Jr., who was appointed in 2005
• Associate Justices are the other eight members of the Supreme Court who hear cases and issue opinions alongside the Chief Justice
• Federal judges, appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, preside over cases in the Courts of Appeals and District Courts
• The Solicitor General represents the federal government before the Supreme Court and decides which cases the government will appeal
• Clerks are recent law school graduates who assist judges by researching cases, preparing bench memos, and drafting opinions

Constitutional Foundation

• Article III of the US Constitution establishes the federal judiciary and grants Congress the power to create lower federal courts
• The Constitution grants the Supreme Court original jurisdiction in cases involving ambassadors, public ministers, consuls, and cases in which a state is a party
• The Supremacy Clause (Article VI, Clause 2) establishes that the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the "supreme law of the land" and take precedence over state laws
• The principle of judicial review, established in Marbury v. Madison (1803), gives the Supreme Court the power to declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional
• The Eleventh Amendment grants states sovereign immunity, protecting them from being sued in federal court by citizens of other states or foreign countries without their consent

Jurisdiction and Powers

• Federal courts have jurisdiction over cases involving federal questions (arising under the Constitution, federal laws, or treaties), diversity of citizenship, and cases involving the United States as a party
• The Supreme Court has the power to grant writs of certiorari, allowing it to choose which cases it will hear on appeal
• The Supreme Court can issue writs of mandamus, ordering government officials to perform their legal duties
• Federal courts have the power to issue injunctions, ordering parties to take or refrain from taking specific actions
• The Supreme Court has the authority to interpret the Constitution and federal laws, setting binding precedents for lower courts to follow

Landmark Cases and Precedents

• Marbury v. Madison (1803) established the principle of judicial review, affirming the Supreme Court's power to declare laws unconstitutional
• Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ruled that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine
• Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) held that the Sixth Amendment requires states to provide counsel to indigent defendants in criminal cases
• Roe v. Wade (1973) recognized a constitutional right to privacy and struck down state laws that prohibited abortion
  • This decision was overturned by Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization (2022), which held that the Constitution does not protect the right to abortion
• Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) legalized same-sex marriage nationwide, ruling that state bans violated the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses

Appointment Process

• Federal judges, including Supreme Court Justices, are nominated by the President and must be confirmed by a majority vote in the Senate
• The President often consults with Senators, legal experts, and advisors when selecting nominees
• The Senate Judiciary Committee holds hearings to question the nominee and gather information about their qualifications and judicial philosophy
• If approved by the Judiciary Committee, the nomination is sent to the full Senate for a confirmation vote
• Once confirmed, federal judges serve life terms and can only be removed through impeachment by the House of Representatives and conviction by the Senate

Checks and Balances

• The judicial branch acts as a check on the legislative and executive branches by reviewing the constitutionality of laws and executive actions
• Congress can check the judiciary by confirming or rejecting judicial nominees, impeaching federal judges, and proposing constitutional amendments to override Supreme Court decisions
• The President checks the judiciary by nominating federal judges and can veto legislation aimed at altering the judiciary's structure or jurisdiction
• The Supreme Court can check both Congress and the President by declaring laws or executive actions unconstitutional
• The power of judicial review allows the Supreme Court to interpret the Constitution and ensure that the other branches act within their constitutional limits

Current Issues and Debates

• The role of ideology in judicial decision-making and the politicization of the nomination process have been subjects of ongoing debate
• The use of "litmus tests" to gauge a nominee's stance on controversial issues like abortion and gun rights has become increasingly common
• The concept of "judicial activism" versus "judicial restraint" sparks discussions about the proper role of the judiciary in interpreting the law and the Constitution
• The impact of life tenure for federal judges on the independence and accountability of the judiciary is a topic of debate
  • Some argue for term limits or a mandatory retirement age to ensure a more dynamic and representative judiciary
• The lack of diversity in the federal judiciary, particularly in terms of race, gender, and professional background, has led to calls for a more inclusive nomination process