American imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries marked a shift from continental expansion to global influence. Driven by , cultural superiority beliefs, and strategic goals, the U.S. acquired territories like and the .
This expansionist era saw the U.S. emerge as a world power, building naval bases and implementing policies like the Open Door in China. However, it also sparked debates about American values and the treatment of indigenous populations in newly acquired territories.
Motivations for American Imperialism
Manifest Destiny and Divine Right
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The concept of asserted that the United States had a to expand across the North American continent
This belief served as a significant motivator for American expansionism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
Manifest Destiny was rooted in the idea that American culture, values, and institutions were superior and destined to spread across the continent
Economic and Strategic Interests
The desire to establish naval bases and coaling stations to support American merchant ships and the U.S. Navy was a key factor in the acquisition of overseas territories
These bases and stations were crucial for protecting American commercial interests and projecting naval power abroad
The of 1898 was a turning point in American foreign policy, leading to the acquisition of territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines
These territories provided strategic locations for American military bases and expanded American influence in the Caribbean and the Pacific
The aimed to secure equal trading rights for all nations in China, exemplifying American efforts to expand economic influence in Asia
Cultural Superiority and "White Man's Burden"
The belief in the superiority of American culture and the "" to civilize and Christianize non-white populations was used to justify imperialist actions
This belief was rooted in ideas of racial hierarchy and the presumed duty of white Americans to uplift and govern supposedly inferior races
The construction of the , completed in 1914, was seen as a significant achievement of American expansionism and a symbol of American technological and cultural superiority
The canal facilitated trade and naval power projection, demonstrating American engineering prowess and strategic reach
Factors Contributing to American Imperialism
Economic Interests and Industrialization
The rapid industrialization of the United States in the late 19th century created a need for new markets and sources of raw materials, driving economic expansionism
American businesses sought access to foreign markets to sell their goods and secure reliable sources of resources (rubber, tin, sugar)
The political influence of business interests, such as the in Central America, often shaped American foreign policy decisions
These companies lobbied for government support and intervention to protect their investments and maintain favorable conditions for their operations
Intellectual and Cultural Justifications
The rise of , which applied the concept of "survival of the fittest" to nations and races, provided an intellectual justification for imperialism
Social Darwinists argued that competition between nations and races was natural and that the strongest and most advanced societies would dominate others
The cultural belief in the superiority of Anglo-Saxon civilization and the duty to spread American values and institutions abroad was a significant driver of imperialist policies
This belief was reflected in the idea of the "white man's burden," which held that white Americans had a moral obligation to civilize and govern non-white populations
Political and Military Factors
The emergence of the United States as a global naval power, exemplified by the modernization of the U.S. Navy under Admiral , enabled the projection of American power overseas
Mahan argued that a strong navy was essential for protecting American commerce and securing overseas markets and territories
The Spanish-American War and the acquisition of overseas territories marked a shift in American political thought, from isolationism to a more active role in world affairs
The war demonstrated American military capabilities and fueled public enthusiasm for expansionism and the acquisition of colonies (Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam)
Impact of American Imperialism on Territories
Political and Social Changes
The acquisition of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines following the Spanish-American War brought these territories under American control, leading to significant changes in their political, economic, and social structures
American-style governance, laws, and institutions were imposed on these territories, often displacing or marginalizing local systems and leaders
The U.S. governance of the Philippines was marked by the suppression of indigenous resistance, such as the (1899-1902), and the imposition of American-style institutions and education
The war resulted in the deaths of thousands of Filipinos and the establishment of an American colonial government that aimed to "civilize" and "Americanize" the population
The annexation of in 1898 led to the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy and the marginalization of native Hawaiian culture and land rights
American settlers and business interests, particularly in the sugar industry, played a significant role in the annexation and the transformation of Hawaiian society
Economic and Labor Impacts
American economic interests, such as the United Fruit Company in Central America, often led to the support of authoritarian regimes and the suppression of labor movements in the region
These companies benefited from favorable land concessions, low wages, and the suppression of labor organizing, often at the expense of local populations
The construction of the Panama Canal involved the displacement of indigenous populations and the importation of a large, primarily West Indian labor force, leading to significant demographic changes in the Canal Zone
The harsh working conditions and segregated labor system in the Canal Zone reinforced racial hierarchies and economic inequalities
Limitations on Sovereignty
The (1901) granted the United States the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and establish a naval base at Guantanamo Bay, limiting Cuban sovereignty and independence
The amendment ensured American control over Cuban foreign policy and gave the U.S. a permanent military presence on the island
The U.S. exercised significant control over the economies and governments of its territories, often prioritizing American interests over local needs and aspirations
This control limited the ability of these territories to pursue independent development and self-determination
Debates over American Imperialism
Anti-Imperialist Arguments
The , formed in 1898, argued that the acquisition of overseas territories violated American principles of self-government and would lead to the corruption of American democracy
The league believed that the Constitution did not permit the U.S. to govern people without their consent and that imperialism would undermine American democratic ideals
Critics of imperialism, such as and , argued that the suppression of indigenous populations and the imposition of American rule abroad were incompatible with American values of liberty and democracy
Twain's essay "To the Person Sitting in Darkness" (1901) satirized American imperialist hypocrisy and the exploitation of foreign peoples
Political Divisions and Dissent
The Democratic Party, particularly during the presidency of , was more skeptical of imperialist policies and advocated for greater respect for the sovereignty of other nations
Wilson's , presented after World War I, emphasized the principles of self-determination and the peaceful resolution of international disputes
The Philippines-American War sparked domestic debate about the morality and legality of suppressing Philippine independence movements and imposing American colonial rule
The war was criticized by anti-imperialists as a betrayal of American principles and a cruel subjugation of the Filipino people
Concerns over Expansion of Federal Power
The annexation of Hawaii was opposed by some Americans who viewed it as a violation of Hawaiian sovereignty and a betrayal of American anti-monarchical principles
Critics argued that the U.S. had no right to overthrow a sovereign government and annex a foreign territory without the consent of its people
The growth of the American empire abroad raised concerns about the increasing power of the federal government and the potential for the militarization of American society
Some Americans feared that the pursuit of imperialism would lead to the concentration of power in the hands of the federal government and the erosion of individual liberties and democratic accountability