🌽Native American Studies Unit 6 – Native American Resistance & Resilience

Historical Context

• Native American resistance and resilience have been ongoing since the arrival of European colonizers in the Americas
• Colonization led to the displacement, forced relocation, and genocide of Native American populations
• European diseases (smallpox, measles) decimated Native American populations, reducing their ability to resist colonization
• The Indian Removal Act of 1830 authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands to designated Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River
  • This forced migration, known as the Trail of Tears, resulted in the deaths of thousands of Native Americans (Cherokee, Muscogee, Seminole, Chickasaw, Choctaw)
• The Dawes Act of 1887 aimed to assimilate Native Americans into Euro-American culture by breaking up tribal lands into individual allotments
  • This act weakened tribal sovereignty and led to the loss of millions of acres of Native American land
• The Indian Boarding School era (late 19th to mid-20th century) removed Native American children from their families and communities to attend government-run schools that aimed to erase their cultural identities

Key Figures and Leaders

• Tecumseh, a Shawnee leader, formed a confederacy of Native American tribes to resist American expansion in the early 19th century
• Sitting Bull, a Hunkpapa Lakota chief, led his people in resistance against the U.S. government, including the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876
• Geronimo, an Apache leader, led a group of warriors in a prolonged resistance against Mexican and American forces in the late 19th century
• Chief Joseph, a Nez Perce leader, led his people on a 1,170-mile fighting retreat in an attempt to reach Canada and avoid forced relocation to a reservation
• Red Cloud, an Oglala Lakota chief, led a successful war against the U.S. Army in the 1860s to protect Native American hunting grounds and resist the construction of forts along the Bozeman Trail
• Crazy Horse, an Oglala Lakota war leader, played a key role in several battles against the U.S. Army, including the Battle of the Little Bighorn
• Sarah Winnemucca, a Northern Paiute educator and activist, advocated for Native American rights and worked to improve conditions on reservations in the late 19th century

Forms of Resistance

• Armed resistance, including battles and guerrilla warfare tactics, was used by various Native American tribes to defend their lands and way of life
  • Examples include the Seminole Wars, the Red River War, and the Modoc War
• Diplomatic resistance involved Native American leaders negotiating treaties and agreements with colonial powers and the U.S. government to protect their rights and territories
• Cultural resistance focused on preserving Native American traditions, languages, and spiritual practices in the face of assimilation policies
  • This included the continuation of ceremonies (Sun Dance, potlatch) and the passing down of oral histories
• Economic resistance involved Native American tribes adapting their economies to maintain self-sufficiency and resist dependency on government aid
  • This included the development of successful ranching and farming operations on reservations
• Legal resistance saw Native American individuals and tribes using the U.S. court system to assert their rights and challenge discriminatory policies
  • Examples include the fishing rights case United States v. Washington and the land claim case County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York
• Political resistance included Native American leaders and activists advocating for tribal sovereignty, self-determination, and the recognition of treaty rights
  • This involved the formation of pan-Indian organizations (Society of American Indians, National Congress of American Indians) to lobby for Native American interests

Cultural Preservation

• Native American tribes have worked to preserve their languages through language revitalization programs, immersion schools, and the documentation of oral histories
  • Examples include the Navajo Nation's Diné College and the Hawai'i'imiloa program for Hawaiian language revitalization
• Traditional knowledge, including ecological knowledge and medicinal practices, has been passed down through generations to ensure its survival
• Native American artists have used various mediums (painting, sculpture, beadwork) to express and preserve cultural identity and storytelling traditions
• Pow wows and cultural festivals provide opportunities for Native American communities to celebrate their heritage, share traditional dances and music, and promote cultural exchange
• The repatriation of sacred objects and ancestral remains, as mandated by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990, has helped restore cultural items to their rightful tribal owners
• The establishment of tribal museums and cultural centers has created spaces for Native American communities to preserve and showcase their histories and cultural artifacts
  • Examples include the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of the American Indian and the Oneida Nation Museum

Impact on Native Communities

• The legacy of colonization, forced relocation, and assimilation policies has led to intergenerational trauma within Native American communities
  • This trauma manifests in higher rates of poverty, substance abuse, and mental health issues compared to the general U.S. population
• The loss of ancestral lands has disrupted traditional ways of life and limited access to sacred sites and natural resources essential for cultural and spiritual practices
• The suppression of Native American languages and cultural practices has contributed to a loss of identity and disconnection from traditional knowledge systems
• The breakup of tribal lands through allotment policies has led to the fragmentation of Native American communities and the erosion of tribal sovereignty
• The Indian Boarding School era's forced assimilation has resulted in the loss of language, cultural knowledge, and familial bonds for many Native American individuals and families
• Despite these challenges, Native American communities have demonstrated resilience through the preservation of cultural traditions, the pursuit of self-determination, and the fight for legal rights and recognition

Legal Battles and Treaties

• The Marshall Trilogy, a series of Supreme Court decisions in the early 19th century, established the legal framework for Native American tribes as "domestic dependent nations" with limited sovereignty
• The Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851) and the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) were agreements between the U.S. government and various Plains Indian tribes that aimed to establish peace and define tribal territories
  • However, these treaties were often violated by the U.S. government and settlers, leading to further conflict and land loss for Native American tribes
• The Indian Claims Commission, established in 1946, provided a legal avenue for Native American tribes to seek compensation for land taken by the U.S. government
  • However, the commission's limited scope and the requirement for tribes to accept monetary compensation rather than land restoration led to mixed results
• The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 marked a shift in U.S. policy towards Native American tribes, promoting self-governance and tribal control over federal programs and services
• The American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 aimed to protect Native American religious practices and access to sacred sites, although its enforcement has been limited
• The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988 established the framework for Native American tribes to operate gaming facilities on tribal lands, providing a source of revenue for many tribes

Modern Movements and Activism

• The American Indian Movement (AIM), founded in 1968, advocated for Native American rights and led high-profile protests, such as the occupation of Alcatraz Island (1969-1971) and the Wounded Knee Incident (1973)
• The Indigenous Environmental Network, established in 1990, works to address environmental justice issues affecting Native American communities, such as the opposition to the Dakota Access Pipeline
• The Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women (MMIW) movement seeks to raise awareness and demand action on the disproportionately high rates of violence against Native American women
• The fight for tribal water rights has been a key issue for many Native American communities, as exemplified by the Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians' successful lawsuit against California water agencies
• Native American activists have advocated for the removal of racist mascots and team names, leading to changes in sports franchises like the Washington Football Team (formerly the Redskins)
• The Land Back movement calls for the return of ancestral lands to Native American tribes and the restoration of tribal stewardship over these lands
  • This movement has gained momentum with the proposed Landback legislation and the return of land to tribes like the Esselen Tribe of Monterey County, California

Legacy and Ongoing Challenges

• Native American resistance and resilience have shaped the history and cultural landscape of the United States, challenging the dominant narrative of colonization and manifest destiny
• The legacy of colonization and historical trauma continues to impact Native American communities, as evidenced by persistent health, economic, and social disparities
• Native American tribes continue to fight for tribal sovereignty, self-determination, and the protection of their lands, resources, and cultural heritage
• The ongoing struggle for the recognition of treaty rights and the enforcement of federal trust responsibilities remains a central issue for many Native American tribes
• The revitalization of Native American languages and cultural practices is an ongoing effort, with tribes investing in language programs, cultural education, and the preservation of traditional knowledge
• Climate change poses significant threats to Native American communities, particularly those in coastal areas or reliant on traditional subsistence practices, necessitating adaptive strategies and the incorporation of traditional ecological knowledge
• The underrepresentation of Native American voices in political decision-making and mainstream media continues to be a challenge, highlighting the need for increased Native American representation and self-determination
• Despite these ongoing challenges, Native American communities continue to demonstrate resilience, creativity, and determination in asserting their rights, preserving their cultures, and building sustainable futures for generations to come