1.2 Plateau tribes

The Plateau tribes of the Pacific Northwest shaped Washington's early history. These diverse groups inhabited a vast region from British Columbia to Oregon, adapting to varied landscapes from mountains to river valleys. Their cultures were deeply connected to the land and its resources.

Plateau tribes developed complex social structures, religious practices, and economic strategies. Fishing, hunting, and gathering formed the backbone of their economies, while extensive trade networks linked them to other regions. Their rich cultural heritage continues to influence Washington State today.

Geographic distribution of tribes

• Plateau tribes inhabited a vast region in the Pacific Northwest, stretching from British Columbia to Oregon and from the Cascade Mountains to the Rocky Mountains
• This diverse landscape shaped the cultures and lifestyles of various Plateau tribes, influencing their resource utilization and social structures
• Understanding the geographic distribution of Plateau tribes provides crucial context for Washington State's indigenous history and cultural diversity

Major plateau regions

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• Columbia Plateau encompassed the largest area, characterized by rolling hills, deep river valleys, and semi-arid climate
• Okanogan Highlands in northeastern Washington featured mountainous terrain and numerous lakes
• Blue Mountains region in southeastern Washington and northeastern Oregon offered diverse ecosystems from forests to grasslands
• Snake River Plain extended into southern Idaho, providing a unique environment for tribes in that area

Tribal territories and boundaries

• Nez Perce occupied a large territory spanning parts of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho
• Yakama people inhabited the area around the Yakima River and its tributaries in central Washington
• Umatilla tribe controlled lands along the Columbia River and its tributaries in northeastern Oregon and southeastern Washington
• Spokane tribe resided in the area surrounding the Spokane River in eastern Washington
• Colville Confederated Tribes comprised several smaller groups occupying north-central Washington
• Boundaries between tribal territories were often fluid and based on traditional use areas rather than strict borders

Cultural characteristics

• Plateau tribes shared many cultural similarities due to their common environment and interactions, but each tribe maintained distinct traditions and practices
• Cultural characteristics of Plateau tribes were deeply intertwined with the natural world, reflecting a profound respect for the environment and its resources
• Understanding these cultural traits is essential for appreciating the rich heritage of Washington State's indigenous peoples

Social structure

• Extended family units formed the basic social structure, with several families often living together in villages
• Clan systems organized many tribes, with membership typically determined through matrilineal descent
• Social stratification existed, with chiefs, spiritual leaders, and skilled individuals holding higher status
• Gender roles were often complementary, with men primarily responsible for hunting and fishing, while women managed gathering and food processing
• Age-based hierarchy respected elders for their wisdom and experience

Religious beliefs and practices

• Animistic worldview believed in the spiritual nature of all living things and natural phenomena
• Vision quests served as important rites of passage for young people to seek spiritual guidance and power
• Sweat lodge ceremonies purified body and spirit, often conducted before important events or as healing rituals
• Seasonal ceremonies marked important transitions in the annual cycle (First Salmon Ceremony, Root Feast)
• Shamans or medicine people played crucial roles as healers and spiritual intermediaries

Traditional customs and ceremonies

• Potlatch tradition involved elaborate gift-giving feasts to redistribute wealth and affirm social status
• Naming ceremonies bestowed important personal and spiritual identities on individuals
• Marriage customs often involved gift exchanges between families and elaborate celebrations
• Funeral practices included complex mourning rituals and beliefs about the afterlife
• Coming-of-age ceremonies marked important transitions for both boys and girls into adulthood

Economic activities

• Plateau tribes developed diverse economic strategies to thrive in their environment, combining hunting, fishing, gathering, and trade
• These economic activities were closely tied to seasonal patterns and the availability of resources across different ecosystems
• Understanding the economic practices of Plateau tribes provides insight into their sustainable use of natural resources and complex trade networks

Fishing and hunting practices

• Salmon fishing formed the cornerstone of many Plateau tribes' economies, using sophisticated techniques (fish weirs, dip nets, spears)
• Seasonal fish runs determined the timing of major economic activities and social gatherings
• Hunting focused on large game animals (deer, elk, bighorn sheep) using bows and arrows or spears
• Communal hunting drives organized to maximize efficiency in capturing animals like bison on the eastern edges of Plateau territory
• Preservation techniques (smoking, drying) allowed tribes to store fish and meat for winter use or trade

Gathering of plant resources

• Root vegetables (camas, bitterroot, wild onions) harvested using specialized digging sticks
• Berries (huckleberries, chokecherries, serviceberries) collected in large quantities during late summer and fall
• Medicinal plants gathered and processed for traditional healing practices
• Bark and plant fibers collected for making baskets, clothing, and other essential items
• Seasonal rounds organized to access different plant resources as they became available throughout the year

Trade networks and relationships

• Extensive trade networks connected Plateau tribes with coastal and Plains tribes
• The Dalles on the Columbia River served as a major trade hub, facilitating exchanges between diverse groups
• Trade goods included dried salmon, animal hides, obsidian, and shells from the coast
• Intertribal gatherings, often coinciding with fishing seasons, provided opportunities for trade and cultural exchange
• Introduction of horses in the 18th century dramatically expanded trade possibilities and cultural interactions

Language and communication

• Language diversity among Plateau tribes reflected the complex cultural landscape of the region
• Oral traditions played a crucial role in preserving history, cultural knowledge, and spiritual beliefs
• Understanding the linguistic heritage of Plateau tribes is essential for appreciating the depth and richness of Washington State's indigenous cultures

Linguistic families

• Salishan language family predominated in the northern Plateau region, including languages (Spokane, Colville, Coeur d'Alene)
• Sahaptian languages spoken in the southern Plateau area, including Nez Perce and Yakama
• Chinookan languages found along the Columbia River, with significant influence on trade interactions
• Ktunaxa (Kutenai) language, an isolate, spoken by tribes in the northeastern part of the Plateau
• Multilingualism common among Plateau peoples due to extensive trade networks and intertribal marriages

Oral traditions and storytelling

• Creation stories explained the origins of the world, people, and important cultural features
• Coyote tales served as both entertainment and vehicles for transmitting moral and practical lessons
• Historical narratives preserved accounts of important events, migrations, and tribal histories
• Seasonal stories aligned with the annual cycle, reinforcing knowledge about resource gathering and spiritual practices
• Storytelling techniques incorporated gestures, songs, and audience participation to enhance memorization and engagement

Tribal governance

• Plateau tribes developed diverse governance structures adapted to their specific needs and environments
• Traditional leadership roles combined practical skills with spiritual authority
• Understanding tribal governance systems provides insight into the complex social and political organization of Plateau societies

Leadership structures

• Hereditary chiefs often held positions of authority, particularly in larger tribes or confederations
• Council of elders advised chiefs and participated in important decision-making processes
• War chiefs selected based on proven leadership abilities in times of conflict
• Spiritual leaders (shamans, medicine people) held significant influence in tribal affairs
• Women's councils existed in some tribes, providing input on various aspects of community life

Decision-making processes

• Consensus-based decision-making prevalent in many Plateau tribes, emphasizing community harmony
• Village or band-level autonomy common, with larger tribal affiliations for specific purposes (war, trade)
• Public discussions and debates held to address important community issues
• Seasonal gatherings provided opportunities for inter-village or inter-tribal decision-making
• Mediation and conflict resolution often involved respected elders or neutral third parties

Inter-tribal relations

• Alliances formed for mutual defense, resource access, and trade purposes
• Marriage alliances strengthened relationships between different tribes or bands
• Intertribal gatherings facilitated cultural exchange, conflict resolution, and collective decision-making
• Some rivalries or conflicts existed, often related to resource competition or historical grievances
• Diplomatic protocols developed to manage relationships between different tribal groups

Seasonal patterns

• Plateau tribes' lifestyles were intimately connected to the changing seasons and resource availability
• Seasonal movements allowed tribes to efficiently utilize diverse ecosystems within their territories
• Understanding these patterns provides insight into the adaptive strategies and ecological knowledge of Plateau peoples

Nomadic vs sedentary lifestyles

• Semi-nomadic pattern common among many Plateau tribes, combining seasonal movements with more permanent winter villages
• Winter villages located in sheltered river valleys, providing protection from harsh weather
• Spring and summer camps established in upland areas to access diverse resources (root gathering grounds, berry patches)
• Fall fishing camps set up along major rivers to harvest and process salmon runs
• Some groups, particularly those with access to abundant river resources, maintained more sedentary lifestyles year-round

Seasonal resource gathering

• Spring activities focused on harvesting early plant foods (bitterroot, wild onions) and hunting migrating waterfowl
• Summer months dedicated to intensive root gathering in mountain meadows and prairies
• Late summer and fall centered around salmon fishing, berry picking, and hunting large game animals
• Winter season involved relying on stored foods, limited hunting, and engaging in indoor activities (crafts, storytelling)
• Ceremonial calendar aligned with seasonal resource availability, marking important transitions in the annual cycle

Material culture

• Plateau tribes developed sophisticated material culture adapted to their environment and lifestyle needs
• Craftsmanship reflected deep ecological knowledge and artistic traditions
• Understanding material culture provides insights into daily life, technological innovations, and aesthetic values of Plateau peoples

Housing and architecture

• Pit houses (semi-subterranean dwellings) served as primary winter residences, providing insulation and protection
• Tule mat lodges used as temporary summer dwellings, easily transported and assembled
• Longhouses constructed in some areas, particularly for communal gatherings and ceremonies
• Sweat lodges built for purification rituals and healing practices
• Storage structures (elevated platforms, underground caches) designed to protect food supplies from animals and weather

Tools and technology

• Fishing technology included elaborate weirs, nets, spears, and fish traps
• Hunting tools featured bows and arrows, spears, and snares tailored for different game animals
• Plant processing tools (digging sticks, grinding stones, baskets) designed for efficient harvesting and preparation
• Hide working tools (scrapers, awls) used to create clothing and other leather goods
• Watercraft (sturgeon-nosed canoes, rafts) adapted for river travel and fishing

Clothing and adornment

• Clothing made primarily from animal hides (deer, elk) and plant fibers (cedar bark, hemp)
• Winter garments included fur-lined robes, leggings, and moccasins for protection against cold
• Summer clothing lighter and more minimal, often consisting of breechcloths and simple dresses
• Elaborate ceremonial attire featured intricate beadwork, quillwork, and fringes
• Personal adornment included jewelry made from shells, bones, and local stones, as well as body painting for special occasions

Impact of European contact

• European contact profoundly altered the lives of Plateau tribes, introducing new challenges and opportunities
• Disease epidemics, technological changes, and shifting economic patterns reshaped traditional lifeways
• Understanding this period is crucial for comprehending the historical context of modern Plateau tribal nations

Disease and population decline

• Smallpox epidemics devastated Plateau populations, with some estimates suggesting up to 90% population loss
• Measles, influenza, and other introduced diseases further impacted tribal demographics
• Population declines disrupted traditional social structures and knowledge transmission
• Some villages and smaller tribal groups became extinct or merged with larger tribes for survival
• Demographic changes altered power dynamics between tribes and with incoming European settlers

Changes in traditional practices

• Introduction of horses in the early 18th century revolutionized transportation, hunting, and warfare
• Firearms adoption changed hunting techniques and inter-tribal conflicts
• Trade with Europeans introduced new materials (glass beads, metal tools) that were incorporated into traditional crafts
• Christian missionaries influenced religious beliefs and practices, leading to syncretic spiritual traditions
• European agricultural practices gradually adopted by some tribes, altering traditional food systems

Fur trade influence

• Establishment of fur trading posts (Fort Nez Perces, Fort Colville) created new economic opportunities
• Plateau tribes became important intermediaries in the fur trade network
• Increased focus on fur-bearing animals shifted some traditional hunting and trapping practices
• Trade goods (metal tools, textiles, firearms) rapidly integrated into Plateau material culture
• Economic dependencies on fur trade led to significant social and political changes within tribal societies

Treaties and reservations

• Treaty-making process between Plateau tribes and the U.S. government fundamentally altered tribal territories and sovereignty
• Establishment of reservations dramatically changed traditional lifeways and land use patterns
• Understanding this period is essential for comprehending the legal and historical context of modern tribal nations in Washington State

Major treaties with U.S. government

• 1855 Yakama Treaty consolidated 14 bands and tribes onto a single reservation
• 1855 Walla Walla Council resulted in treaties with Nez Perce, Umatilla, and other tribes
• 1855 Hellgate Treaty established reservations for Flathead, Kootenai, and Upper Pend d'Oreilles tribes
• 1863 Nez Perce Treaty significantly reduced the size of the 1855 reservation
• Many smaller tribes not formally recognized through treaties, leading to ongoing legal challenges

Establishment of reservations

• Colville Reservation created by executive order in 1872, initially excluding some tribes later included
• Spokane Reservation established in 1881 after years of resistance and negotiation
• Coeur d'Alene Reservation formalized in 1873, significantly smaller than traditional tribal territory
• Some tribes (Kalispel, Lower Spokane) received small reservations or became landless
• Reservation boundaries often arbitrarily drawn, disregarding traditional use areas and kinship ties

Loss of ancestral lands

• Treaty cessions resulted in tribes losing access to vast territories and diverse resources
• Traditional seasonal rounds disrupted by confinement to reservation boundaries
• Sacred sites and culturally significant locations often excluded from reservation lands
• Allotment policy (Dawes Act of 1887) further fragmented tribal lands within reservations
• Loss of land base severely impacted traditional economies and cultural practices

Modern plateau tribes

• Contemporary Plateau tribal nations have undergone significant changes while maintaining cultural continuity
• Efforts to revitalize languages, traditions, and sovereignty characterize modern tribal initiatives
• Understanding the current status of Plateau tribes is crucial for appreciating their ongoing contributions to Washington State's cultural landscape

Contemporary tribal nations

• Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation includes 12 bands from various Plateau groups
• Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation represents 14 originally distinct tribes
• Nez Perce Tribe maintains reservation lands in Idaho with strong connections to ancestral territories in Washington
• Spokane Tribe of Indians continues to reside on a portion of their traditional lands
• Coeur d'Alene Tribe operates as a sovereign nation with reservation lands in Idaho

Cultural revitalization efforts

• Language immersion programs established to preserve and revitalize indigenous languages
• Traditional arts and crafts (basketry, beadwork) promoted through educational initiatives and markets
• Seasonal ceremonies and gatherings revived to strengthen cultural identity and community bonds
• Tribal museums and cultural centers established to preserve and share historical artifacts and knowledge
• Youth programs developed to connect younger generations with traditional practices and values

Economic development initiatives

• Casino gaming operations provide significant revenue for many Plateau tribes
• Sustainable resource management practices implemented on reservation lands (forestry, fisheries)
• Tourism initiatives showcase cultural heritage and natural beauty of tribal territories
• Renewable energy projects (solar, wind) developed on some reservations
• Educational institutions established to provide culturally relevant higher education opportunities

Environmental stewardship

• Traditional ecological knowledge of Plateau tribes reflects centuries of sustainable resource management
• Modern environmental challenges require integration of indigenous wisdom with contemporary conservation practices
• Understanding Plateau tribes' approach to environmental stewardship is crucial for addressing regional ecological issues

Traditional ecological knowledge

• Detailed understanding of plant and animal life cycles informed sustainable harvesting practices
• Fire management techniques used to maintain healthy ecosystems and enhance resource availability
• Water management systems developed for fishing and small-scale agriculture
• Holistic worldview recognized the interconnectedness of all living things and natural phenomena
• Oral traditions preserved and transmitted ecological knowledge across generations

Conservation practices

• Selective harvesting methods ensured the regeneration of plant resources
• Fishing techniques and timing aligned with salmon life cycles to maintain healthy populations
• Hunting practices incorporated taboos and restrictions to prevent overharvesting
• Waste minimization emphasized through full utilization of harvested plants and animals
• Seasonal rounds distributed resource use across diverse ecosystems, preventing localized depletion

Modern environmental challenges

• Climate change impacts (altered precipitation patterns, increased wildfires) affecting traditional resources
• Water rights issues arising from competing demands for limited water resources
• Habitat loss and fragmentation threatening culturally significant plant and animal species
• Environmental contamination from industrial activities impacting tribal lands and resources
• Collaborative management efforts between tribes and government agencies addressing complex ecological issues