Indian Philosophy

๐ŸฆšIndian Philosophy Unit 3 โ€“ Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy

The orthodox schools of Indian philosophy form the backbone of Hindu thought, accepting the Vedas as authoritative. These six schoolsโ€”Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedantaโ€”explore fundamental questions about reality, knowledge, and liberation. Each school offers unique perspectives on the nature of existence, consciousness, and the path to enlightenment. They engage in complex debates, refining their ideas through centuries of intellectual discourse. Their influence extends beyond philosophy, shaping Indian culture, religion, and worldview.

Key Concepts and Terminology

  • Astika refers to the orthodox schools of Indian philosophy that accept the authority of the Vedas
  • Nastika refers to the heterodox schools that reject the authority of the Vedas (Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka)
  • Darshana means "sight" or "view" and refers to the different philosophical perspectives or schools
  • Pramana refers to the means of valid knowledge or the epistemological tools used by each school
    • Pratyaksha is direct perception through the senses
    • Anumana is inference based on logical reasoning
    • Sabda is verbal testimony, especially from the Vedas
    • Upamana is comparison or analogy
  • Purusha refers to the individual soul or consciousness in Samkhya and Yoga philosophies
  • Prakrti refers to the primal matter or nature in Samkhya philosophy, consisting of the three gunas (sattva, rajas, tamas)

Historical Context and Origins

  • The orthodox schools emerged during the late Vedic period (1500-500 BCE) and the subsequent classical period of Indian philosophy
  • They developed in response to the challenges posed by the heterodox schools, particularly Buddhism and Jainism
  • The schools aimed to systematize and interpret the teachings of the Vedas and Upanishads
  • They engaged in debates and discussions with each other and with the heterodox schools, refining their philosophical positions
  • The schools were patronized by various rulers and institutions, leading to their spread and influence across India
  • The development of the orthodox schools coincided with the rise of classical Sanskrit literature, including philosophical texts and commentaries

Major Orthodox Schools

  • Samkhya is one of the oldest schools, founded by Kapila, and emphasizes the dualism of Purusha (consciousness) and Prakrti (matter)
  • Yoga, closely related to Samkhya, was systematized by Patanjali and focuses on the practice of meditation to achieve liberation
  • Nyaya, founded by Gautama, is known for its rigorous system of logic and epistemology
    • It developed a five-step syllogism (panchavayava) for logical reasoning
  • Vaisheshika, founded by Kanada, is an atomistic school that proposes a classification of reality into categories (padarthas)
  • Mimamsa, attributed to Jaimini, emphasizes the interpretation of Vedic rituals and the philosophy of language
    • It is divided into two sub-schools: Purva-Mimamsa and Uttara-Mimamsa (Vedanta)
  • Vedanta, based on the Upanishads and systematized by Badarayana, focuses on the nature of Brahman (ultimate reality) and Atman (individual self)
    • It has three main sub-schools: Advaita (non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), and Dvaita (dualism)

Core Philosophical Principles

  • The orthodox schools accept the authority of the Vedas as revealed knowledge (shruti) and the concept of Atman (self) and Brahman (ultimate reality)
  • They aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of reality, including metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics
  • The schools propose different paths to liberation (moksha) from the cycle of birth and death (samsara)
    • These include knowledge (jnana), devotion (bhakti), and action (karma)
  • They emphasize the role of dharma (ethical duty) and the law of karma (cause and effect) in shaping an individual's life and future rebirths
  • The schools engage in debates on the nature of the self, the relationship between the individual and the ultimate reality, and the means of valid knowledge
  • They also discuss the nature of the world, the origin of suffering, and the path to enlightenment or self-realization

Key Thinkers and Texts

  • Kapila, the founder of Samkhya, is mentioned in the Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita, but his original texts are lost
    • The oldest surviving text of Samkhya is the Samkhya-karika by Ishvarakrishna (c. 4th century CE)
  • Patanjali, the compiler of the Yoga Sutras (c. 2nd century BCE), systematized the Yoga school
  • Gautama, the founder of Nyaya, authored the Nyaya Sutras, which were later commented on by Vatsyayana (c. 5th century CE)
  • Kanada, the founder of Vaisheshika, authored the Vaisheshika Sutras, which were expanded by later commentators like Prashastapada (c. 6th century CE)
  • Jaimini, the founder of Mimamsa, authored the Mimamsa Sutras, which were elaborated on by Shabara (c. 1st century BCE)
  • Badarayana, the systematizer of Vedanta, authored the Brahma Sutras, which were interpreted differently by the sub-schools of Vedanta
    • Adi Shankara (c. 8th century CE) was the main proponent of Advaita Vedanta
    • Ramanuja (c. 11th century CE) developed Vishishtadvaita Vedanta
    • Madhva (c. 13th century CE) established Dvaita Vedanta

Debates and Controversies

  • The orthodox schools engaged in debates with each other and with the heterodox schools on various philosophical issues
  • Samkhya and Yoga debated the existence of God (Ishvara), with Samkhya denying it and Yoga accepting it
  • Nyaya and Vaisheshika differed on the nature of the self (Atman), with Nyaya considering it to be distinct from the mind and body, while Vaisheshika saw it as a separate substance
  • Mimamsa and Vedanta disagreed on the importance of Vedic rituals, with Mimamsa emphasizing their centrality and Vedanta focusing on philosophical knowledge
  • Within Vedanta, the sub-schools debated the nature of the relationship between Brahman and Atman
    • Advaita Vedanta proposed a non-dualistic view, asserting the ultimate identity of Brahman and Atman
    • Vishishtadvaita Vedanta maintained a qualified non-dualism, with Atman being a part of Brahman
    • Dvaita Vedanta advocated a dualistic view, with Brahman and Atman being eternally separate
  • The schools also debated the validity and hierarchy of the pramanas (means of knowledge), with some prioritizing perception and others emphasizing inference or scriptural testimony

Influence on Indian Culture

  • The orthodox schools have had a profound impact on Indian philosophy, religion, and culture
  • They have shaped the worldview and values of Hinduism, providing a philosophical foundation for its beliefs and practices
  • The concepts and terminology of the orthodox schools have become part of the common vocabulary and discourse in Indian intellectual circles
  • The schools have influenced the development of Indian literature, art, and architecture, with their ideas being reflected in various works
  • The debates and discussions among the schools have fostered a tradition of intellectual inquiry and critical thinking in Indian society
  • The orthodox schools have also interacted with and influenced other religious and philosophical traditions in India, such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism
  • The ideas of the orthodox schools have spread beyond India, influencing philosophical thought in other parts of Asia and the world

Comparison with Other Philosophical Traditions

  • The orthodox schools of Indian philosophy share some similarities with ancient Greek philosophy, particularly in their emphasis on logical reasoning and the search for ultimate truth
    • The Nyaya school's syllogism is comparable to Aristotelian logic
  • However, the Indian schools place a greater emphasis on spiritual liberation and the integration of philosophical knowledge with religious practice
  • The concept of karma and rebirth is unique to Indian philosophy and sets it apart from Western philosophical traditions
  • The orthodox schools' acceptance of the Vedas as authoritative distinguishes them from the heterodox schools of Indian philosophy and from philosophical traditions outside India
  • The Indian schools' focus on the nature of the self and its relationship to the ultimate reality is comparable to some strands of Western metaphysics and epistemology
  • The Yoga school's emphasis on meditation and physical practices has parallels in some Eastern philosophical and spiritual traditions, such as Buddhism and Taoism
  • The Mimamsa school's analysis of language and interpretation has similarities with Western hermeneutics and philosophy of language


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APยฎ and SATยฎ are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.