5.4 Metaphysical theories in Buddhist and Jain traditions

Buddhist and Jain traditions offer unique perspectives on reality within Indian philosophy. They challenge conventional notions of self, substance, and causality, presenting alternative frameworks for understanding existence and change.

These metaphysical theories contrast with other Indian schools' views on ultimate reality, the soul, and the nature of change. They provide distinct approaches to karma, epistemology, and the relationship between individuals and the cosmos.

Key Metaphysical Concepts in Buddhism

Dependent Origination and Emptiness

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• Dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda) explains causal interconnectedness of all phenomena
  • Asserts all things arise in dependence upon multiple causes and conditions
  • Example: A tree grows from a seed, which depends on soil, water, sunlight, and other factors
• Emptiness (śūnyatā) refers to lack of inherent existence in all phenomena
  • Challenges notion of permanent, independent entities
  • Example: A car has no inherent "car-ness" - it's a collection of parts and concepts that we label as a car
• Two Truths doctrine distinguishes between conventional and ultimate truth
  • Conventional truth (saṃvṛti-satya) deals with everyday experiences and perceptions
  • Ultimate truth (paramārtha-satya) relates to the true nature of reality beyond conceptual constructs
  • Example: A table is conventionally real and useful, but ultimately empty of inherent existence

Impermanence and Non-Self

• Theory of momentariness (kṣaṇikavāda) posits all phenomena exist in constant flux
  • Entities exist only for an infinitesimal moment before being replaced
  • Example: A flame appears constant but consists of rapidly changing combustion reactions
• Non-self (anātman) denies existence of permanent, unchanging self or soul
  • Perceives self as collection of ever-changing physical and mental phenomena
  • Example: Our thoughts, emotions, and physical bodies constantly change, revealing no fixed "self"

Yogācāra School Concepts

• Store-consciousness (ālayavijñāna) acts as foundation of all mental phenomena
  • Serves as basis for appearance of external reality
  • Example: Dreams appear real while sleeping due to mental constructs stored in ālayavijñāna

Jain Theory of Reality

Anekantavada and Syādvāda

• Anekantavada (doctrine of non-one-sidedness) asserts reality as multi-faceted
  • Approaches reality from various perspectives, each capturing partial truth
  • Example: Describing an elephant based on touching different parts (trunk, leg, tail) yields different but valid perspectives
• Syādvāda (doctrine of conditional predication) complements anekantavada
  • Provides logical framework for expressing multifaceted nature of reality
  • Uses seven modes of predication to describe reality comprehensively
  • Example: A cup of water can be described as "perhaps full" (from one perspective) and "perhaps empty" (from another)

Fundamental Categories and Substances

• Jainism posits two fundamental categories of reality
  • Jīva (living substances or souls)
  • Ajīva (non-living substances)
• Dravya (substance) concept asserts entities possess permanent and changing aspects
  • Reconciles ideas of permanence and change in unique metaphysical framework
  • Example: Gold (permanent substance) can change form (ring, necklace) while retaining its essential nature
• Guṇaparyāya theory describes qualities (guṇa) and modes (paryāya) of substances
  • Provides detailed account of essential and accidental properties in entities
  • Example: Sweetness (guṇa) in sugar remains constant, while its crystalline structure (paryāya) can change

Karma and Rebirth

• Karma conceived as subtle form of matter adhering to the soul
  • Influences experiences and determines cycle of rebirth
  • Example: Negative actions accumulate karmic particles, leading to unfavorable future experiences
• Jainism emphasizes individual responsibility in shaping one's karma and destiny
  • Contrasts with some other Indian traditions that attribute events to divine will

Buddhist and Jain Metaphysics vs Other Indian Schools

Contrasting Views on Ultimate Reality

• Buddhist emptiness (śūnyatā) and Jain anekantavada differ from Advaita Vedanta's Brahman concept
  • Buddhism denies any ultimate, unchanging reality
  • Jainism accepts multiple perspectives on reality
  • Advaita Vedanta posits Brahman as singular, ultimate truth
• Buddhist dependent origination contrasts with Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika atomistic theory
  • Buddhism emphasizes interconnectedness and flux
  • Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika proposes eternal, indivisible atoms as fundamental constituents
  • Example: A table in Buddhism results from causes and conditions, while in Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika it's an arrangement of fundamental atoms

Soul and Self Concepts

• Jainism asserts existence of individual souls (jīvas)
• Buddhism teaches doctrine of non-self (anātman)
• Hindu schools like Sāṃkhya and Yoga align more closely with Jain view
  • Example: Jainism and Sāṃkhya both posit multiple, individual souls, while Buddhism rejects the notion entirely

Theories of Change and Substance

• Buddhist theory of momentariness challenges notion of enduring substances
  • Contrasts with schools like Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and Mīmāṃsā
  • Presents radically different view of existence and change
  • Example: A river in Buddhism is a continuous flow of momentary states, while in Nyāya it's an enduring substance with changing qualities

Theological Positions and Karma

• Jain and Buddhist metaphysics reject concept of supreme creator deity
  • Distinguishes them from theistic schools like Nyāya and certain Vedanta branches
• Jain theory of karma as material substance differs from other interpretations
  • Buddhism understands karma as causal principle
  • Hindu schools offer various karma interpretations
  • Example: Jainism sees karma as physical particles attaching to the soul, while Buddhism views it as a natural law of cause and effect

Epistemological Approaches

• Buddhist and Jain emphasis on multiplicity of viewpoints contrasts with other traditions
  • Stress limitations of human knowledge
  • Differ from more absolutist epistemological claims in some Indian schools
  • Example: Jain syādvāda encourages considering multiple perspectives, while Nyāya aims for definitive, singular truths through logical analysis