3.2 Land cessions and forced relocations

Land cessions and forced relocations have profoundly impacted Indigenous peoples across the Americas. Colonial powers and nation-states used treaties, broken promises, and lack of legal recourse to dispossess Indigenous communities of their ancestral lands, disrupting traditional ways of life and cultural practices.

Forced relocations, like the Indian Removal Act and the Long Walk of the Navajo, further devastated Indigenous communities. The reservation system and allotment policies continued this pattern of displacement, leading to lasting consequences including poverty, cultural disruption, and intergenerational trauma.

Loss of ancestral lands

• Indigenous peoples across the Americas have experienced significant loss of their ancestral lands through various means, often at the hands of colonial powers and later nation-states
• The dispossession of Indigenous lands has had far-reaching consequences, disrupting traditional ways of life, cultural practices, and the overall well-being of Indigenous communities

Treaties and agreements

Top images from around the web for Treaties and agreements

• 

  Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851) - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851) - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851) - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for Treaties and agreements

• 

  Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851) - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851) - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851) - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• Colonial powers and later nation-states often entered into treaties and agreements with Indigenous nations to acquire land
  • These treaties were frequently characterized by unequal power dynamics and lack of understanding on the part of Indigenous signatories
• Many treaties involved the cession of vast tracts of land in exchange for promises of protection, services, and the retention of smaller areas for Indigenous use
  • For example, the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851) between the U.S. government and various Plains tribes established territorial boundaries and promised annuities in exchange for peace
• Indigenous nations often viewed these treaties as sacred agreements, while colonial powers and nation-states frequently disregarded them when it suited their interests

Broken promises by governments

• Governments often failed to uphold their obligations under treaties and agreements with Indigenous nations
  • Promised annuities, services, and protections were often not delivered or were inadequate
• As settlers continued to encroach on Indigenous lands, governments frequently ignored treaty boundaries and allowed for the further dispossession of Indigenous territories
  • The Black Hills, sacred to the Lakota people, were guaranteed to them under the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) but were later taken by the U.S. government following the discovery of gold
• The breaking of treaties and agreements eroded trust between Indigenous nations and colonial powers/nation-states and contributed to ongoing conflicts

Lack of legal recourse

• Indigenous nations often had limited legal recourse to address the loss of their ancestral lands and the violation of treaties
• Colonial and later national legal systems were often biased against Indigenous peoples and did not recognize the validity of Indigenous land tenure systems
  • The Doctrine of Discovery, used by European powers to justify the acquisition of Indigenous lands, was based on the notion that Indigenous peoples did not have full property rights to their territories
• Indigenous peoples faced significant barriers in accessing and navigating colonial and national court systems to assert their land rights
  • Language barriers, cultural differences, and lack of financial resources made it difficult for Indigenous peoples to effectively advocate for their rights within these systems

Forced relocations

• Indigenous peoples across the Americas experienced forced relocations from their ancestral lands as a result of government policies and actions
• These relocations, often carried out through coercion or military force, had devastating impacts on Indigenous communities, disrupting their way of life and causing significant hardships

Indian Removal Act of 1830

• The Indian Removal Act, passed by the U.S. Congress in 1830, authorized the president to negotiate treaties with Indigenous nations in the southeastern United States for their removal to territories west of the Mississippi River
• The act resulted in the forced relocation of tens of thousands of Indigenous people, including the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations
  • The Cherokee removal, known as the Trail of Tears, resulted in the deaths of an estimated 4,000 Cherokee people during the forced march westward
• The Indian Removal Act was driven by the desire for settler expansion and the discovery of valuable resources, such as gold, on Indigenous lands

Long Walk of the Navajo

• In 1864, the U.S. military forcibly removed around 9,000 Navajo people from their homeland in the Four Corners region and marched them to the Bosque Redondo reservation in eastern New Mexico
  • The 450-mile journey, known as the Long Walk, resulted in the deaths of hundreds of Navajo people due to starvation, exposure, and disease
• Conditions at Bosque Redondo were dire, with inadequate food, water, and shelter, leading to further deaths and suffering
• In 1868, the Navajo signed a treaty with the U.S. government allowing them to return to a portion of their ancestral lands, but the trauma of the Long Walk has had lasting impacts on the Navajo nation

Reservation system

• The reservation system, implemented by the U.S. government in the mid-19th century, involved the confinement of Indigenous peoples to designated areas to facilitate settler expansion and exert control over Indigenous populations
• Reservations were often located on marginal lands with limited resources, making it difficult for Indigenous communities to sustain themselves
  • The Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, home to the Oglala Lakota, is one of the poorest areas in the United States, with high rates of unemployment, poverty, and health disparities
• The reservation system disrupted traditional Indigenous ways of life, such as hunting and gathering, and made Indigenous peoples dependent on government assistance

Allotment policies

• Allotment policies, such as the Dawes Act of 1887 in the United States, aimed to break up communal Indigenous landholdings into individual plots
  • The goal was to encourage Indigenous peoples to adopt European-American farming practices and assimilate into mainstream society
• Allotment resulted in the significant loss of Indigenous lands, as "surplus" lands were often sold to non-Indigenous buyers
  • Between 1887 and 1934, Indigenous landholdings in the U.S. decreased from approximately 138 million acres to 48 million acres
• Allotment policies disrupted traditional Indigenous land tenure systems and often led to the fragmentation of Indigenous communities

Impact on Indigenous communities

• The loss of ancestral lands and forced relocations have had profound and lasting impacts on Indigenous communities across the Americas
• These experiences have disrupted traditional ways of life, cultural practices, and social structures, contributing to ongoing challenges faced by Indigenous peoples

Loss of traditional way of life

• The dispossession of ancestral lands has made it difficult for Indigenous communities to maintain their traditional ways of life, which are often closely tied to the land
  • The loss of access to sacred sites, hunting and gathering grounds, and medicinal plants has disrupted cultural and spiritual practices
• Forced relocations have severed Indigenous peoples' connections to their ancestral lands, which are central to their identities and sense of belonging
  • For many Indigenous communities, the land is not just a physical resource but a living entity with which they have a deep, reciprocal relationship

Disruption of cultural practices

• The loss of ancestral lands and forced relocations have disrupted the transmission of cultural knowledge and practices across generations
  • Traditional skills, such as hunting, gathering, and crafting, have been difficult to maintain without access to ancestral lands and resources
• Sacred sites, essential for cultural and spiritual practices, have often been lost or made inaccessible due to land dispossession and relocations
  • The flooding of Celilo Falls on the Columbia River, a sacred fishing site for Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest, as a result of the construction of The Dalles Dam in 1957, is an example of this disruption

Separation of families

• Forced relocations have often led to the separation of Indigenous families and communities
  • During the Trail of Tears, Cherokee families were sometimes split up, with some members being left behind or sent to different destinations
• The reservation system and allotment policies also contributed to the fragmentation of Indigenous communities, as families were often divided and dispersed across different reservations or allotments
  • This separation has had lasting impacts on family structures, social networks, and cultural continuity

Cycles of poverty

• The loss of ancestral lands and forced relocations have contributed to ongoing cycles of poverty in many Indigenous communities
• The confinement of Indigenous peoples to marginal lands with limited resources has made it difficult for them to develop sustainable economies
  • Many reservations have high rates of unemployment, poverty, and dependence on government assistance
• The disruption of traditional ways of life and the limitations imposed by the reservation system have also made it challenging for Indigenous communities to break out of poverty
  • Limited access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities have further perpetuated these cycles

Resistance and resilience

• Despite the immense challenges and hardships faced by Indigenous communities as a result of land loss and forced relocations, they have demonstrated remarkable resistance and resilience
• Indigenous peoples have employed various strategies to survive, maintain their cultural identities, and advocate for their rights

Survival strategies

• Indigenous communities have adapted to the challenges posed by land loss and forced relocations through the development of new survival strategies
  • Some communities have turned to wage labor, such as working in mines or on ranches, to support themselves economically
• Indigenous peoples have also relied on their traditional knowledge and skills to navigate difficult circumstances
  • The use of traditional medicines, hunting and gathering practices, and the cultivation of crops have helped sustain Indigenous communities in the face of adversity

Maintaining cultural identity

• Indigenous communities have worked tirelessly to maintain their cultural identities in the face of assimilationist policies and the disruption of traditional ways of life
• The preservation of Indigenous languages has been a key aspect of maintaining cultural identity
  • Language immersion schools, such as the Akwesasne Freedom School for Mohawk children, have been established to revitalize and pass on Indigenous languages to younger generations
• Indigenous communities have also continued to practice their cultural and spiritual traditions, adapting them to new contexts when necessary
  • The annual Sun Dance ceremony, practiced by many Plains Indigenous nations, has persisted despite the suppression of Indigenous religious practices by the U.S. government in the past

Activism and advocacy

• Indigenous peoples have engaged in activism and advocacy to assert their rights and resist ongoing land dispossession and encroachment
• The American Indian Movement (AIM), founded in 1968, has been at the forefront of Indigenous activism in the United States
  • AIM's occupation of Alcatraz Island in 1969 and the Wounded Knee incident in 1973 drew national attention to Indigenous rights issues
• Indigenous organizations and leaders have also advocated for the recognition of treaty rights and the protection of sacred sites
  • The Lakota People's Law Project has worked to assert the Lakota nation's rights to the Black Hills, which were illegally taken by the U.S. government

Land back movements

• In recent years, there has been a growing movement among Indigenous communities to reclaim ancestral lands and assert their sovereignty
• The Land Back movement calls for the return of Indigenous lands to Indigenous control and the restoration of Indigenous land stewardship practices
  • The Wiyot Tribe's successful reclamation of Duluwat Island in California, a sacred site that was taken from them in the 1860s, is an example of a Land Back victory
• Land Back initiatives aim to address the ongoing impacts of land dispossession and forced relocations by restoring Indigenous peoples' connections to their ancestral territories and enabling them to practice their traditional ways of life

Legacy and ongoing challenges

• The loss of ancestral lands and forced relocations have left a lasting legacy of trauma, dispossession, and ongoing challenges for Indigenous communities across the Americas
• Despite the resilience and resistance of Indigenous peoples, many communities continue to grapple with the impacts of these historical and ongoing injustices

Intergenerational trauma

• The experiences of land loss, forced relocations, and the disruption of traditional ways of life have resulted in intergenerational trauma among Indigenous communities
  • The trauma experienced by previous generations, such as the survivors of the Trail of Tears or the Long Walk, has been passed down to subsequent generations through collective memory and lived experiences
• Intergenerational trauma has been linked to higher rates of mental health issues, substance abuse, and social problems in Indigenous communities
  • Addressing this trauma requires culturally sensitive approaches that acknowledge the historical and ongoing impacts of colonization and dispossession

Disputes over land rights

• Many Indigenous communities continue to face disputes over land rights and the recognition of their ancestral territories
• The legal frameworks of nation-states often fail to adequately recognize Indigenous land rights and sovereignty
  • The U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Johnson v. M'Intosh (1823) established the Doctrine of Discovery as a legal principle, limiting Indigenous land rights in favor of colonial powers
• Indigenous communities have engaged in lengthy legal battles to assert their land rights and seek redress for historical land losses
  • The Tsilhqot'in Nation in British Columbia, Canada, won a landmark Supreme Court case in 2014 that recognized their Aboriginal title to a portion of their ancestral lands

Environmental degradation

• The loss of ancestral lands and the disruption of traditional Indigenous land stewardship practices have contributed to environmental degradation
• The exploitation of natural resources on Indigenous lands, such as mining, logging, and oil extraction, has led to pollution, deforestation, and the loss of biodiversity
  • The tar sands development in Alberta, Canada, has had devastating impacts on the traditional lands and health of nearby Indigenous communities, such as the Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation
• Indigenous communities have been at the forefront of environmental activism, advocating for the protection of their ancestral lands and the recognition of their role as stewards of the environment
  • The Standing Rock Sioux Tribe's opposition to the Dakota Access Pipeline in 2016 garnered international attention and support for Indigenous environmental rights

Revitalization efforts

• Despite the ongoing challenges, many Indigenous communities are engaging in revitalization efforts to strengthen their cultural identities, assert their sovereignty, and heal from the impacts of land loss and forced relocations
• Language revitalization programs, such as the Mohawk Language Custodian Association in Tyendinaga, Ontario, are working to preserve and promote Indigenous languages
  • These programs aim to ensure the survival of Indigenous languages and the cultural knowledge they carry
• Indigenous communities are also revitalizing traditional practices, such as agriculture, land management, and crafting, to maintain their connections to their ancestral lands and cultural heritage
  • The Indigenous Seed Keepers Network, a program of the Native American Food Sovereignty Alliance, supports the preservation and sharing of traditional Indigenous seeds and agricultural practices
• Healing programs, such as the Wellbriety Movement, which incorporates Indigenous cultural practices and spirituality into addiction recovery, are addressing the intergenerational impacts of trauma and promoting community well-being
  • These revitalization efforts demonstrate the resilience and determination of Indigenous communities to overcome the legacy of land loss and forced relocations and to build a more sustainable and just future for generations to come