4.2 Forced adoption and child removal policies

Forced adoption and child removal policies have devastated Indigenous communities worldwide. Governments and religious organizations systematically separated children from their families, aiming to erase Indigenous identity and assimilate them into dominant cultures.

These policies caused immense trauma, cultural loss, and intergenerational harm. Despite this, Indigenous communities have shown resilience through advocacy, legal challenges, and cultural revitalization efforts. Truth and reconciliation processes are now addressing past wrongs and supporting healing.

Forced adoption policies

• Forced adoption policies involved the systematic removal of Indigenous children from their families and communities, placing them with non-Indigenous families
• These policies were implemented by governments and religious organizations in various countries, including the United States, Canada, and Australia
• The goal was to assimilate Indigenous children into the dominant culture and erase their Indigenous identity

Reasons for implementation

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• Belief that Indigenous families were unfit to raise their children due to poverty, cultural differences, and prejudice
• Assumption that Indigenous children would have better opportunities if raised in non-Indigenous families
• Desire to "civilize" and Christianize Indigenous populations by removing children from their traditional ways of life
• Government policies aimed at breaking up Indigenous communities and weakening their cultural and social structures

Impact on Indigenous families

• Separation of children from their parents, siblings, and extended family members, causing immense grief and trauma
• Loss of cultural knowledge, language, and traditions as children were raised in non-Indigenous households
• Disruption of family and community bonds, leading to a breakdown in social and cultural continuity
• Feelings of shame, guilt, and disconnection among Indigenous parents and communities who were unable to protect their children

Long-term consequences

• Intergenerational trauma passed down to subsequent generations, affecting mental health, family dynamics, and cultural identity
• Difficulty in reconnecting with birth families and communities later in life, leading to identity crises and a sense of not belonging
• Higher rates of substance abuse, depression, and suicide among Indigenous people who were adopted or their descendants
• Ongoing mistrust and resentment towards government authorities and institutions due to the legacy of forced adoptions

Child removal policies

• Child removal policies involved the systematic removal of Indigenous children from their families and communities by government authorities
• These policies were often justified as a means of protecting children from neglect or abuse, but in reality, they were rooted in colonial attitudes and a desire to assimilate Indigenous populations
• Child removal policies have had devastating and long-lasting impacts on Indigenous families and communities

Historical context

• Child removal policies have been implemented in various countries with Indigenous populations, including the United States, Canada, and Australia
• In the United States, the Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) was passed in 1978 to address the disproportionate removal of Native American children from their families
• In Canada, the "Sixties Scoop" refers to the widespread removal of Indigenous children from their families during the 1960s and 1970s, placing them in non-Indigenous foster homes or adoptive families
• In Australia, the "Stolen Generations" refers to the removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families between 1910 and 1970

Government justifications

• Belief that Indigenous families were unable to properly care for their children due to poverty, cultural differences, and social issues
• Assumption that removing children from their families and placing them in non-Indigenous homes would provide them with better opportunities and a higher standard of living
• Justification that child removal was necessary to protect children from neglect, abuse, or unhealthy living conditions in Indigenous communities
• Use of child welfare policies as a tool for assimilation and cultural genocide, aiming to erase Indigenous identity and integrate children into the dominant society

Trauma and cultural loss

• Separation from family, community, and culture led to profound feelings of loss, grief, and disconnection among Indigenous children
• Many children experienced abuse, neglect, and mistreatment in the foster care system or adoptive homes, compounding their trauma
• Loss of language, cultural knowledge, and traditional practices as children were raised in non-Indigenous environments
• Difficulty in reconnecting with birth families and communities later in life, leading to identity crises and a sense of not belonging
• Intergenerational trauma passed down to subsequent generations, affecting mental health, family dynamics, and cultural continuity

Residential school system

• The residential school system was a network of government-funded, church-run schools that operated in Canada, the United States, and other countries with the goal of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant culture
• Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and communities and placed in these schools, where they were prohibited from speaking their native languages or practicing their cultural traditions
• The residential school system has had devastating and long-lasting impacts on Indigenous communities, with many survivors experiencing trauma, abuse, and cultural loss

Assimilation goals

• The primary goal of the residential school system was to assimilate Indigenous children into the dominant culture and erase their Indigenous identity
• Children were forced to adopt European names, clothing, and customs, and were punished for speaking their native languages or practicing their cultural traditions
• The curriculum focused on teaching European values, religion, and ways of life, while denigrating Indigenous cultures and belief systems
• The ultimate aim was to "kill the Indian in the child" and create a new generation of Indigenous people who were fully integrated into the dominant society

Abuse and neglect

• Many Indigenous children experienced physical, sexual, and emotional abuse at the hands of school staff and administrators
• Neglect was also common, with children often being underfed, poorly clothed, and living in unsanitary conditions
• Diseases such as tuberculosis and influenza spread rapidly in the overcrowded and poorly ventilated schools, leading to high rates of illness and death among students
• The abuse and neglect experienced in residential schools has had long-lasting impacts on survivors, including post-traumatic stress disorder, substance abuse, and difficulty forming healthy relationships

Intergenerational impacts

• The trauma experienced by residential school survivors has been passed down to subsequent generations, affecting the mental health and well-being of Indigenous communities
• Many survivors have struggled with parenting and family relationships due to the lack of positive role models and the disruption of traditional family structures
• The loss of language and cultural knowledge has made it difficult for younger generations to connect with their heritage and identity
• The legacy of the residential school system has contributed to ongoing social issues in Indigenous communities, such as high rates of poverty, substance abuse, and suicide

Indigenous resistance

• Despite the devastating impacts of forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies, Indigenous communities have demonstrated incredible resilience and resistance in the face of these challenges
• Indigenous people have fought back against these policies through advocacy, activism, legal challenges, and cultural revitalization efforts
• These efforts have been critical in raising awareness about the harms caused by these policies and in seeking justice and healing for Indigenous communities

Advocacy and activism

• Indigenous organizations and activists have worked tirelessly to raise awareness about the impacts of forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
• They have advocated for the rights of Indigenous children and families, and have pushed for changes to government policies and practices
• Grassroots movements such as the "Idle No More" campaign in Canada have brought attention to ongoing issues facing Indigenous communities, including the overrepresentation of Indigenous children in the child welfare system
• International advocacy efforts have also been important in raising awareness about these issues on a global scale

Legal challenges

• Indigenous communities have used legal challenges to fight against forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
• In the United States, the Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) was passed in 1978 in response to advocacy efforts by Native American organizations and leaders
• In Canada, class action lawsuits have been filed on behalf of residential school survivors, leading to the establishment of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement in 2007
• Legal challenges have also been used to assert Indigenous rights and sovereignty, and to hold governments accountable for past harms

Reclaiming cultural practices

• Indigenous communities have worked to reclaim and revitalize their cultural practices and traditions in the face of assimilation policies
• Language revitalization programs have been established to teach younger generations their native languages and to preserve this critical aspect of cultural identity
• Traditional healing practices, such as sweat lodges and talking circles, have been used to address the trauma and mental health impacts of these policies
• Cultural camps and other programs have been developed to teach Indigenous youth about their heritage and to foster a sense of pride and connection to their communities

Truth and reconciliation

• In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the need for truth and reconciliation processes to address the harms caused by forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
• These processes involve acknowledging past wrongs, offering apologies and compensation to survivors and their families, and working towards healing and cultural revival
• Truth and reconciliation efforts have been undertaken in various countries, including Canada, Australia, and the United States

Acknowledging past wrongs

• Governments and institutions have begun to acknowledge the harms caused by forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
• In Canada, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was established in 2008 to document the experiences of residential school survivors and to make recommendations for reconciliation
• The TRC's final report, released in 2015, included 94 calls to action aimed at addressing the legacy of residential schools and advancing reconciliation
• Similar processes have been undertaken in Australia, with the National Apology to the Stolen Generations in 2008 and the establishment of the Healing Foundation to support survivors and their families

Apologies and compensation

• Formal apologies have been offered by governments and institutions for their role in forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
• In Canada, Prime Minister Stephen Harper issued a formal apology to residential school survivors in 2008, acknowledging the harms caused by the system and the government's role in perpetuating it
• Compensation packages have also been offered to survivors and their families as a means of acknowledging the harm caused and providing financial support for healing and recovery
• The Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement in Canada included a common experience payment for all survivors, as well as additional compensation for those who experienced serious physical or sexual abuse

Healing and cultural revival

• Truth and reconciliation processes have also focused on supporting healing and cultural revival for Indigenous communities
• In Canada, the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement included funding for the establishment of the Aboriginal Healing Foundation, which supported community-based healing initiatives
• Cultural revitalization programs have been developed to help Indigenous people reconnect with their heritage and traditions, and to promote a sense of pride and resilience
• Healing circles, traditional ceremonies, and other culturally-based approaches have been used to address the trauma and mental health impacts of these policies

Contemporary issues

• Despite efforts towards truth and reconciliation, Indigenous communities continue to face ongoing challenges and barriers related to the legacy of forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
• These issues include the overrepresentation of Indigenous children in the child welfare system, as well as ongoing struggles with poverty, substance abuse, and mental health
• Indigenous-led solutions and approaches are needed to address these challenges and to promote healing and resilience

Overrepresentation in child welfare

• Indigenous children continue to be overrepresented in the child welfare system in many countries, including Canada, Australia, and the United States
• In Canada, Indigenous children make up 7.7% of the child population but account for 52.2% of children in foster care
• The reasons for this overrepresentation are complex and include ongoing poverty, intergenerational trauma, and systemic racism within the child welfare system
• There is a need for culturally-appropriate and community-based approaches to child welfare that prioritize family preservation and cultural continuity

Ongoing challenges and barriers

• Indigenous communities continue to face significant challenges related to poverty, unemployment, and lack of access to education and healthcare
• The legacy of forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies has contributed to ongoing mental health issues, substance abuse, and family breakdown
• Systemic racism and discrimination continue to be significant barriers to Indigenous people's full participation in society and access to opportunities
• There is a need for ongoing support and resources to address these challenges and promote healing and resilience

Indigenous-led solutions

• Indigenous communities are developing their own solutions and approaches to addressing the ongoing impacts of forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
• These approaches prioritize cultural revitalization, community-based healing, and the empowerment of Indigenous people to take control of their own lives and futures
• Examples include the development of Indigenous-led child and family services agencies, cultural camps and programs for youth, and community-based mental health and addiction services
• There is a need for governments and institutions to support and invest in these Indigenous-led solutions, and to work in partnership with Indigenous communities to address ongoing challenges and promote reconciliation

International comparisons

• Forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies have been implemented in various countries with Indigenous populations, including Canada, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand
• While there are similarities in the experiences of Indigenous communities across these countries, there are also unique aspects to each context that are important to consider
• International comparisons can provide valuable lessons and best practices for addressing the ongoing impacts of these policies and promoting reconciliation

Similar policies in other countries

• In Australia, the "Stolen Generations" refers to the removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families between 1910 and 1970
• In the United States, the Indian Adoption Project and the Bureau of Indian Affairs' Indian Boarding Schools had similar goals of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant culture
• In New Zealand, the Maori community has also experienced the impacts of child removal and cultural assimilation policies
• These policies were all rooted in colonial attitudes and a belief in the superiority of European culture and ways of life

Unique aspects of each context

• While there are similarities in the experiences of Indigenous communities across these countries, there are also unique aspects to each context that are important to consider
• In Canada, the residential school system was a central component of the government's assimilation policy, and operated for over a century
• In Australia, the "Stolen Generations" policies were implemented at the state level, and varied in their specific practices and timelines
• In the United States, the Indian Adoption Project was a targeted effort to remove Native American children from their families and place them with non-Native adoptive families
• These unique aspects highlight the importance of understanding the specific historical and cultural context of each country when addressing the impacts of these policies

Lessons and best practices

• International comparisons can provide valuable lessons and best practices for addressing the ongoing impacts of forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
• One key lesson is the importance of centering Indigenous voices and experiences in any truth and reconciliation process
• Another best practice is the need for a holistic approach that addresses the intergenerational impacts of these policies, including the ongoing challenges related to poverty, mental health, and substance abuse
• Governments and institutions must also be willing to acknowledge past harms and take concrete actions to support healing and reconciliation, including providing resources and support for Indigenous-led initiatives
• Finally, there is a need for ongoing education and awareness-raising about the history and impacts of these policies, both within Indigenous communities and in the broader public discourse