7.2 Impacts of mining and oil/gas extraction

Resource extraction has devastating effects on indigenous communities and their environments. From water pollution to deforestation, mining and drilling threaten ecosystems and traditional practices. These activities often displace indigenous peoples from ancestral lands, disrupt livelihoods, and increase crime and violence.

The economic benefits of extraction rarely reach affected communities. Instead, indigenous peoples face health impacts from pollution, legal battles over land rights, and criminalization of resistance. Despite these challenges, indigenous-led movements are fighting back through protests, lawsuits, and demands for sustainable alternatives.

Environmental impacts of extraction

• Extraction activities, such as mining and drilling, can have devastating effects on the natural environment in areas inhabited by indigenous communities
• These impacts threaten the health of ecosystems that indigenous peoples have stewarded for generations and undermine their ability to maintain traditional practices

Water pollution from mining runoff

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• Mining operations often generate large quantities of waste rock and tailings that contain heavy metals and other toxic substances
• When exposed to rain and surface water, these contaminants can leach into nearby rivers, lakes, and groundwater aquifers
• Acid mine drainage occurs when sulfide minerals oxidize and create highly acidic runoff that can persist for decades after a mine closes
• Examples of water pollution from mining include the Berkeley Pit in Montana and the Ok Tedi mine in Papua New Guinea

Air pollution from drilling and refining

• Oil and gas drilling releases a range of air pollutants, including volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter
• Flaring of excess natural gas at well sites contributes to smog formation and emits carbon black, a known carcinogen
• Refineries that process extracted oil can emit benzene, hydrogen sulfide, and other hazardous chemicals that harm local air quality
• Indigenous communities near Alberta's oil sands have reported unusually high rates of rare cancers linked to air pollution

Deforestation for access roads

• Building roads to access remote extraction sites often requires clearing large swaths of forest and fragmenting wildlife habitat
• In the Amazon rainforest, oil and gas concessions overlap with indigenous territories and have led to rapid deforestation
• Logging roads built for mining can open up previously inaccessible areas to illegal logging, poaching, and land grabs
• The Interoceanic Highway in Peru has facilitated illegal gold mining that has destroyed over 250,000 acres of rainforest

Habitat loss for wildlife

• Extraction projects can disrupt migration routes, breeding grounds, and critical habitat for endangered species
• Noise pollution from drilling and blasting can interfere with wildlife communication and cause animals to abandon an area
• Wastewater discharge and oil spills can contaminate aquatic ecosystems and harm fish populations that indigenous communities rely on
• Caribou herds in the Arctic have declined as oil and gas development encroaches on their calving grounds

Social impacts on indigenous communities

• The social fabric of indigenous communities is often torn apart by the presence of extraction projects in their territories
• Traditional ways of life that have sustained indigenous peoples for millennia are threatened by outside economic pressures and the influx of transient workers

Displacement from ancestral lands

• Indigenous communities are often forcibly removed from their lands to make way for mining or drilling projects
• Governments may use eminent domain or other legal mechanisms to seize indigenous territory without consent
• Displaced communities lose access to sacred sites, traditional hunting and fishing grounds, and medicinal plants
• The San people of Botswana have been evicted from their ancestral lands in the Central Kalahari Game Reserve to allow for diamond mining

Loss of traditional livelihoods

• Extraction projects can disrupt traditional subsistence activities like hunting, fishing, and gathering that are central to indigenous cultures
• Pollution and habitat destruction can decimate the plant and animal species that indigenous communities rely on for food and medicine
• The shift to a cash economy can undermine traditional systems of reciprocity and resource sharing
• Deforestation in Malaysia has deprived indigenous Penan communities of the forest products they need for handicrafts and trade

Increased rates of crime and violence

• The influx of transient workers in extraction boomtowns often leads to increased rates of drug and alcohol abuse, prostitution, and violent crime
• Indigenous women and girls are especially vulnerable to sexual assault and human trafficking in these contexts
• Organized crime syndicates may take control of illegal mining operations and exploit indigenous laborers
• The Yanomami people of Brazil have suffered violence and disease from illegal gold miners invading their territory

Exploitation of indigenous workers

• Indigenous people who work in extraction industries often face discrimination, unsafe working conditions, and unfair compensation
• Companies may take advantage of indigenous workers' lack of formal education or legal status to deny them benefits and protections
• Child labor is common in small-scale mining operations that ignore labor laws and indigenous rights
• Indigenous Wayuu workers in Colombia's El Cerrejón coal mine have reported respiratory illnesses and workplace injuries

Threats to cultural heritage sites

• Extraction projects can destroy or damage indigenous cultural heritage sites, including burial grounds, rock art, and ancient settlements
• The blasting and excavation of open-pit mines can level entire mountains that hold cultural and spiritual significance for indigenous peoples
• Oil pipelines and access roads may cut through the heart of indigenous cultural landscapes
• The destruction of the Aboriginal Juukan Gorge caves by Rio Tinto mining company in Australia sparked international outcry

Economic impacts of resource extraction

• While extraction projects generate significant revenues, very little of this wealth reaches the indigenous communities most impacted by their operations
• The unequal distribution of costs and benefits can deepen poverty and inequality in indigenous territories

Unequal distribution of profits

• The vast majority of profits from resource extraction flow to foreign corporations and national governments, not local indigenous communities
• Companies often negotiate lopsided contracts that deprive indigenous peoples of their fair share of royalties and other benefits
• Corruption and lack of transparency can allow politicians and businesses to siphon off resource revenues into private accounts
• In Ecuador, indigenous groups have protested that oil profits have not translated into local investments in education, healthcare, and infrastructure

Boom and bust cycles

• Resource extraction is notorious for creating boom and bust cycles that destabilize local economies
• The initial influx of investment and jobs during a boom can cause inflation, strain public services, and create social tensions
• When commodity prices drop or reserves are depleted, companies may abruptly abandon a project, leaving behind unemployment and contaminated sites
• The Northern Cheyenne Tribe in Montana experienced a coal bust in the 1970s that left a legacy of poverty and pollution

Lack of long-term economic benefits

• Extraction projects often operate as economic enclaves with few linkages to local supply chains or job markets
• Most of the high-paying technical jobs go to outsiders, while indigenous workers are relegated to short-term low-skilled positions
• Companies may import goods and services rather than supporting local indigenous-owned businesses
• The Navajo Nation in the southwestern United States has seen little lasting economic development from decades of uranium mining on their lands

Dependence on foreign investment

• Many indigenous territories lack the capital and technology needed to develop their own resources, making them dependent on foreign investment
• This dependency can leave indigenous communities vulnerable to the whims of international markets and the decisions of distant corporate boards
• Governments desperate for foreign exchange may offer generous tax breaks and subsidies to attract extraction projects, at the expense of indigenous rights
• In the Philippines, indigenous communities have opposed mining projects backed by Chinese investors that threaten their ancestral domains

Health impacts from pollution

• Pollution from extraction activities can have severe and long-lasting impacts on the health of indigenous communities living nearby
• Exposure to toxic chemicals and particulates can cause a range of acute and chronic illnesses, from skin rashes to cancer

Respiratory illnesses from air pollution

• Inhalation of fine particulate matter from mining and drilling operations can cause asthma, bronchitis, and other respiratory diseases
• Nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide from gas flaring can irritate the lungs and aggravate existing heart and respiratory conditions
• Long-term exposure to air pollutants is linked to increased risk of lung cancer, stroke, and premature death
• Indigenous children in the Peruvian Amazon have been diagnosed with dangerously high blood lead levels from oil drilling emissions

Waterborne diseases from contamination

• Runoff from mines and drilling sites can contaminate rivers and streams with bacteria, viruses, and parasites that cause diarrheal diseases
• Inadequate sanitation and water treatment in extraction boomtowns can lead to outbreaks of cholera, typhoid, and hepatitis A
• Pregnant women and young children are especially vulnerable to the health impacts of waterborne pathogens
• Indigenous communities along Peru's Corrientes River have suffered from diarrhea, skin sores, and miscarriages linked to oil contamination

Exposure to toxic chemicals

• Many of the chemicals used in extraction processes, such as mercury, cyanide, and benzene, are highly toxic to human health
• Chronic exposure to heavy metals like lead, arsenic, and cadmium can damage the brain, kidneys, and reproductive system
• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons found in crude oil are known carcinogens that can cause skin, lung, and bladder cancers
• Indigenous Cree communities in Alberta, Canada have reported high rates of rare cancers in areas with heavy tar sands development

Mental health issues from stress

• The social and cultural disruption caused by extraction projects can take a severe psychological toll on indigenous communities
• Increased rates of substance abuse, domestic violence, and suicide have been documented in indigenous territories impacted by mining and drilling
• The loss of traditional livelihoods and connection to ancestral lands can lead to feelings of grief, anger, and hopelessness
• Intergenerational trauma from forced displacement and assimilation policies can be exacerbated by the stresses of extraction projects
• Indigenous youth in Australia's Kimberley region have experienced a wave of suicides linked to the social impacts of mining and gas development

Legal battles over land rights

• Indigenous communities often face an uphill battle in asserting their land rights against powerful corporate and government interests
• Weak legal protections and lack of enforcement leave indigenous territories vulnerable to encroachment and exploitation

Lack of free, prior and informed consent

• Many extraction projects proceed without the free, prior and informed consent (FPIC) of indigenous peoples, violating international human rights law
• Companies may engage in superficial consultation processes that fail to respect indigenous decision-making structures and right to self-determination
• Governments may claim that national development priorities override the need for indigenous consent
• In Guatemala, Maya communities have filed lawsuits challenging mining licenses issued without adequate consultation or FPIC

Violations of treaty obligations

• Extraction projects can violate the terms of historical treaties and modern land claims agreements between indigenous peoples and settler governments
• Treaty rights to hunt, fish, and gather on traditional territories may be infringed by the impacts of mining and drilling
• Governments may fail to honor their duty to consult and accommodate indigenous interests before approving extraction projects
• The Fort Belknap Indian Community in Montana has sued to enforce their treaty rights against cyanide heap-leach gold mining on sacred lands

Government support for corporate interests

• Governments often prioritize the interests of extraction companies over the rights and well-being of indigenous communities
• Politicians may receive campaign contributions from industry lobbyists or hold personal investments in extraction projects
• Regulatory agencies may be understaffed, underfunded, or subject to industry capture, limiting their ability to enforce environmental and social safeguards
• In Brazil, the Bolsonaro government has rolled back indigenous land protections and encouraged illegal mining and logging in the Amazon

Criminalization of indigenous resistance

• Indigenous leaders and activists who speak out against extraction projects may face harassment, death threats, and false criminal charges
• Governments may deploy military or police forces to suppress indigenous protests and protect corporate assets
• Extractive companies may hire private security firms with histories of human rights abuses to intimidate indigenous communities
• In the Philippines, indigenous activists opposing mining projects have been "red-tagged" as communist terrorists and targeted for extrajudicial killings

Resistance movements against extraction

• Despite the immense challenges they face, indigenous communities around the world are organizing to resist extraction projects and defend their lands and rights
• Through a variety of tactics and alliances, indigenous peoples are asserting their self-determination and demanding a more just and sustainable future

Indigenous-led protests and blockades

• Indigenous communities have staged mass demonstrations, marches, and blockades to physically obstruct extraction projects and draw attention to their impacts
• These direct actions often face violent repression from police and security forces, but can also generate public sympathy and media coverage
• Successful blockades have delayed or halted pipeline construction, interrupted mine production, and disrupted access to drilling sites
• The Standing Rock Sioux Tribe and their allies organized a months-long protest camp to block the Dakota Access Pipeline in North Dakota

International solidarity campaigns

• Indigenous resistance movements are increasingly linking up with global networks of environmental justice and human rights activists
• International solidarity campaigns can help amplify indigenous voices, pressure corporations and governments, and raise funds for legal and community organizing
• NGOs and advocacy groups can help document human rights abuses, file shareholder resolutions, and lobby for policy changes in support of indigenous rights
• The Wangan and Jagalingou people of Australia have built alliances with climate activists around the world to oppose the Adani coal mine on their ancestral lands

Lawsuits against corporations

• Indigenous communities are using national and international courts to hold extraction companies accountable for environmental and human rights violations
• Lawsuits can seek compensation for damages, force companies to clean up contaminated sites, and establish legal precedents for indigenous land rights
• In some cases, courts have ordered the suspension or cancellation of extraction projects that failed to respect indigenous rights
• The Achuar people of Peru won a landmark lawsuit against Occidental Petroleum for dumping billions of barrels of toxic wastewater in the Amazon

Demands for sustainable alternatives

• Indigenous resistance movements are not just saying "no" to extraction projects, but also proposing alternatives for more sustainable and equitable development
• These alternatives often center on indigenous knowledge systems, community-based resource management, and small-scale renewable energy
• Indigenous peoples are demanding a transition away from fossil fuels and a just recovery from the impacts of extraction
• The Indigenous Environmental Network has called for a "Just Transition" to a regenerative economy based on indigenous principles of reciprocity and balance with nature