🌲Indigenous Peoples and Environmental Change Unit 1 – Indigenous Cultures & Environments Pre-1492

Key Concepts and Terms

• Indigenous peoples first inhabitants of a region with distinct cultures, languages, and traditions
• Pre-Columbian era period before European contact and colonization of the Americas
• Subsistence strategies ways indigenous peoples obtained food and resources (hunting, gathering, fishing, agriculture)
• Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) indigenous understanding of the environment and sustainable resource management
  • Passed down through generations via oral traditions and cultural practices
  • Includes knowledge of plants, animals, weather patterns, and seasonal cycles
• Animism belief that all natural objects and phenomena possess a spirit or soul
• Slash-and-burn agriculture method of clearing land by cutting and burning vegetation, then planting crops in the nutrient-rich ash
• Domestication process of selectively breeding plants and animals to develop desired traits for human use (maize, potatoes, llamas)

Geographic Overview

• Americas vast landmass stretching from the Arctic to the southern tip of South America
  • Diverse landscapes including tundra, forests, grasslands, deserts, and rainforests
• Major regions North America, Mesoamerica, Caribbean, and South America
• Mesoamerica cultural area extending from central Mexico to northern Central America
  • Home to advanced civilizations (Maya, Aztec, Olmec)
• Andes mountain range along the western coast of South America
  • Supported large empires (Inca) and complex societies
• Amazon rainforest largest tropical rainforest in the world, covering much of northern South America
  • High biodiversity and numerous indigenous groups
• Great Plains extensive grasslands in central North America
  • Sustained nomadic tribes (Sioux, Cheyenne, Comanche) and large herds of bison

Indigenous Societies and Cultures

• Diverse array of societies with unique languages, customs, and social structures
• Varied subsistence strategies depending on the environment and available resources
  • Hunter-gatherers relied on wild plants and animals (Inuit, Amazonian tribes)
  • Agriculturalists cultivated crops and raised livestock (Pueblo, Inca)
• Complex political organizations ranging from small bands to large empires
  • Iroquois Confederacy alliance of six nations in northeastern North America
  • Aztec Empire powerful Mesoamerican state centered in Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City)
• Sophisticated art, architecture, and technology
  • Mayan hieroglyphic writing system and advanced mathematical concepts
  • Inca road network (Qhapaq Ñan) spanning over 40,000 km
• Rich oral traditions, mythology, and cosmologies
  • Creation stories often emphasized the interconnectedness of humans and nature

Environmental Relationships

• Indigenous peoples developed deep connections to their local environments over thousands of years
• Viewed themselves as part of the natural world rather than separate from it
  • Believed in the interdependence of all living things
• Adapted to diverse ecosystems and developed unique ways of interacting with the environment
  • Arctic peoples (Inuit) relied on marine mammals and adapted to harsh tundra conditions
  • Desert dwellers (Hohokam) developed irrigation systems to cultivate crops in arid regions
• Practiced sustainable resource management to ensure long-term availability of resources
  • Rotated hunting and gathering areas to allow for regeneration
  • Used controlled burns to manage grasslands and promote new growth
• Recognized the importance of maintaining ecological balance
  • Avoided overexploitation of resources and took only what was needed
• Developed extensive knowledge of local flora and fauna
  • Used plants for food, medicine, and materials (cedar, sage, tobacco)

Resource Management Practices

• Indigenous peoples employed various strategies to manage natural resources sustainably
• Hunting and fishing regulated through cultural norms and taboos
  • Respected animal spirits and performed rituals before and after hunts
  • Avoided hunting during breeding seasons to ensure population stability
• Agriculture practices aimed to maintain soil fertility and minimize environmental impact
  • Intercropping planting multiple crops together to maximize space and nutrients
  • Terracing constructing stepped platforms on hillsides to prevent erosion and conserve water
• Agroforestry integrating trees and shrubs into agricultural systems
  • Provided shade, improved soil quality, and increased biodiversity
• Selective harvesting gathering only a portion of available plants to ensure their regeneration
  • Harvested bark from trees in vertical strips to avoid killing the tree
• Managed forests through controlled burns and selective cutting
  • Promoted the growth of desirable plant species and attracted game animals
• Developed sophisticated irrigation systems to manage water resources in arid regions
  • Hohokam constructed extensive canal networks in present-day Arizona

Spiritual and Cultural Connections to Land

• Indigenous peoples' relationships with the environment deeply intertwined with spirituality and culture
• Viewed land as sacred and central to their identity and well-being
  • Believed that the earth was a living entity to be respected and cared for
• Recognized specific sites as having spiritual significance
  • Sacred mountains, rivers, and forests served as places of ceremony and prayer
• Performed rituals and ceremonies to honor the land and maintain balance
  • Sun Dance practiced by Plains tribes to renew the earth and give thanks
  • Kachina dances performed by Pueblo peoples to bring rain and ensure successful harvests
• Oral traditions and stories emphasized the importance of environmental stewardship
  • Passed down ecological knowledge and values through generations
• Artwork and crafts often depicted animals, plants, and landscapes
  • Totem poles carved by Northwest Coast tribes to represent family histories and connections to the natural world
• Land seen as a shared resource for the community rather than individual property
  • Decisions about land use made collectively for the benefit of all

Technology and Innovations

• Indigenous peoples developed a wide range of technologies and innovations to adapt to their environments
• Agriculture advancements allowed for the cultivation of diverse crops
  • Terracing, irrigation systems, and raised fields (chinampas) in Mesoamerica
  • Freeze-drying techniques (chuño) in the Andes to preserve potatoes
• Hunting and fishing tools tailored to specific prey and habitats
  • Atlatl spear-thrower used by many cultures to increase range and accuracy
  • Inuit kayaks and harpoons designed for hunting marine mammals in the Arctic
• Construction techniques adapted to local materials and climates
  • Igloos built by Inuit using snow and ice for insulation in the Arctic
  • Cliff dwellings constructed by Ancestral Puebloans in the American Southwest
• Transportation methods suited to various landscapes
  • Snowshoes and dog sleds used by Arctic peoples to travel across snow and ice
  • Canoes and rafts used by many cultures for river and coastal navigation
• Textiles and clothing made from local materials
  • Cotton and agave fibers woven into textiles in Mesoamerica
  • Animal hides and furs used for clothing and shelter in colder regions

Impact on Ecosystems

• Indigenous peoples' interactions with the environment shaped the landscapes of the Americas over thousands of years
• Hunting practices influenced animal populations and distributions
  • Pleistocene megafauna extinctions possibly linked to human hunting pressure
  • Bison populations on the Great Plains managed through selective hunting
• Agriculture altered natural habitats and increased biodiversity
  • Slash-and-burn practices created mosaic landscapes of fields, forests, and fallows
  • Domestication of plants led to the development of new varieties (maize, potatoes, squash)
• Controlled burns used to manage grasslands and forests
  • Promoted the growth of fire-adapted species and increased habitat diversity
  • Attracted game animals and improved hunting success
• Irrigation and water management practices changed hydrological systems
  • Hohokam canals in the Sonoran Desert redistributed water and created wetland habitats
• Sustainable resource management allowed for long-term use of resources without depletion
  • Selective harvesting and rotation of gathering areas maintained plant populations
• Low population densities and limited technology minimized large-scale environmental impacts
  • Localized effects on ecosystems rather than widespread degradation
• Indigenous land-use practices created cultural landscapes that supported both human needs and biodiversity