🥨Intermediate Macroeconomic Theory Unit 2 – National Income & Product Accounts

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP) measures the total value of all final goods and services produced within a country's borders during a specific period, usually a year or quarter
• Final goods and services are those purchased by the end user, while intermediate goods are used as inputs in the production of other goods and services
• Nominal GDP is measured in current prices, while real GDP adjusts for inflation to allow for comparisons over time
• Gross National Product (GNP) measures the total income earned by a country's residents, regardless of where the income is generated
  • Includes income earned by citizens and businesses abroad, but excludes income earned by foreigners within the country
• Net National Product (NNP) subtracts depreciation of capital goods from GNP to account for the wear and tear of productive assets
• National income is the total income earned by a nation's residents from all sources, including wages, profits, interest, and rent

Components of GDP

• GDP is calculated using the expenditure approach, which sums up spending by households, businesses, government, and net exports
• Consumption (C) includes spending by households on goods and services, such as food, clothing, housing, and entertainment
• Investment (I) refers to spending by businesses on capital goods, such as machinery, equipment, and construction of new buildings
  • Also includes changes in inventories, which are goods produced but not yet sold
• Government spending (G) includes purchases of goods and services by federal, state, and local governments, such as defense, infrastructure, and education
• Net exports (NX) is the difference between exports (goods and services sold to other countries) and imports (goods and services purchased from other countries)
  • Positive net exports contribute to GDP, while negative net exports (a trade deficit) reduce GDP
• The equation for GDP using the expenditure approach is: $GDP = C + I + G + NX$

Measuring National Income

• National income can be measured using the income approach, which sums up all income earned by a country's residents
• Compensation of employees includes wages, salaries, and benefits earned by workers
• Proprietors' income is the income earned by unincorporated businesses, such as sole proprietorships and partnerships
• Rental income is the income earned from renting out property, such as land or buildings
• Corporate profits are the earnings of corporations after paying expenses and taxes
• Interest income is the income earned from lending money, such as through bonds or savings accounts
• The equation for national income using the income approach is: $National Income = Compensation of Employees + Proprietors' Income + Rental Income + Corporate Profits + Interest Income$
• In theory, the expenditure approach and the income approach should yield the same result, as total spending must equal total income in an economy

Circular Flow of Income

• The circular flow model illustrates the flow of money, goods, and services between households, businesses, government, and the rest of the world
• Households provide labor and capital to businesses in exchange for income (wages, rent, interest, and profits)
  • Households use this income to purchase goods and services from businesses, pay taxes to the government, and save or invest
• Businesses use the factors of production provided by households to produce goods and services, which they sell to households, government, and the rest of the world
• The government collects taxes from households and businesses, and uses this revenue to purchase goods and services and provide public goods and services
• The rest of the world interacts with the domestic economy through exports and imports, as well as international financial flows (such as foreign investment and foreign aid)
• The circular flow model demonstrates the interdependence of the various sectors of the economy and how spending by one sector becomes income for another

Real vs. Nominal GDP

• Nominal GDP measures the value of output in current prices, which can be misleading when comparing GDP over time due to inflation
• Real GDP adjusts for inflation by measuring output in constant prices from a base year, allowing for more accurate comparisons of economic growth
  • To calculate real GDP, divide nominal GDP by a price index (such as the GDP deflator) and multiply by 100
• The GDP deflator is a price index that measures the average price level of all goods and services included in GDP
  • Calculated by dividing nominal GDP by real GDP and multiplying by 100
• Changes in real GDP reflect changes in the quantity of output, while changes in nominal GDP can be due to changes in prices, quantity, or both
• When nominal GDP grows faster than real GDP, it indicates that prices are increasing (inflation), while the opposite suggests deflation

GDP Deflator and Price Indices

• The GDP deflator is a comprehensive price index that measures the average price level of all goods and services included in GDP
• Calculated by dividing nominal GDP by real GDP and multiplying by 100: $GDP Deflator = (Nominal GDP / Real GDP) * 100$
• Other price indices, such as the Consumer Price Index (CPI) and the Producer Price Index (PPI), measure changes in prices for a specific basket of goods and services
  • CPI measures changes in prices of goods and services typically purchased by urban consumers
  • PPI measures changes in prices received by domestic producers for their output
• Price indices are used to track inflation and adjust nominal values (such as wages or contracts) for changes in the price level
• The choice of base year for a price index can affect the interpretation of the index, as the composition and relative prices of goods and services change over time
• The GDP deflator is considered a more comprehensive measure of inflation than the CPI or PPI, as it includes all goods and services in GDP, rather than a fixed basket

Limitations and Criticisms of GDP

• GDP does not account for non-market transactions, such as household production (e.g., cooking, cleaning) or the informal economy
• GDP does not consider the distribution of income within a country, as it only measures the total value of output
  • A country with high GDP may still have significant poverty and inequality
• GDP does not account for externalities, such as pollution or the depletion of natural resources, which can have negative impacts on well-being
• GDP does not measure quality of life factors, such as health, education, or happiness
  • A country may have high GDP but low life expectancy or high rates of illiteracy
• GDP may overstate economic well-being in countries with significant debt-financed consumption or government spending
• Changes in GDP do not necessarily reflect changes in the standard of living, as GDP per capita (GDP divided by population) is a better measure of average income

International Comparisons and Applications

• GDP is used to compare the size and growth of economies across countries and over time
• Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) adjusts GDP for differences in the cost of living and exchange rates across countries
  • PPP allows for more accurate comparisons of living standards and economic output
• GDP growth is a key indicator of economic performance and is closely watched by policymakers, investors, and businesses
• Central banks use GDP data to inform monetary policy decisions, such as setting interest rates to control inflation and support economic growth
• Governments use GDP data to guide fiscal policy decisions, such as tax rates and spending priorities
• International organizations, such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, use GDP data to assess the economic health of countries and provide financial assistance or policy advice
• GDP data is used in economic research to study the determinants of economic growth, the impact of policies, and the relationships between various economic variables