🧃Intermediate Microeconomic Theory Unit 8 – Externalities and Public Goods

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Externalities arise when the actions of an individual or firm impact the well-being of a third party without compensation or payment
• Positive externalities generate benefits to third parties (education, vaccinations)
• Negative externalities impose costs on third parties (pollution, noise)
• Public goods are non-rival and non-excludable
  • Non-rival means consumption by one individual does not reduce the availability for others
  • Non-excludable means it is difficult or impossible to exclude individuals from consuming the good
• Free-rider problem occurs when individuals enjoy the benefits of a public good without contributing to its provision
• Social marginal cost (SMC) includes both private marginal cost and external marginal cost
• Social marginal benefit (SMB) includes both private marginal benefit and external marginal benefit

Types of Externalities

• Production externalities occur during the production process (factory emissions)
• Consumption externalities arise from the consumption of goods or services (secondhand smoke)
• Positive production externalities benefit third parties (research and development spillovers)
• Negative production externalities harm third parties (industrial waste)
• Positive consumption externalities benefit others (education, well-maintained properties)
• Negative consumption externalities impose costs on others (noise pollution, traffic congestion)
• Network externalities occur when the value of a product or service increases as more people use it (social media platforms, telecommunications)

Market Failure and Inefficiency

• Externalities lead to market failure because the market equilibrium does not account for the full social costs or benefits
• In the presence of negative externalities, the market equilibrium quantity is higher than the socially optimal quantity
  • Marginal social cost exceeds marginal private cost, leading to overproduction
• With positive externalities, the market equilibrium quantity is lower than the socially optimal quantity
  • Marginal social benefit exceeds marginal private benefit, resulting in underproduction
• Deadweight loss represents the net loss in social welfare due to market inefficiency
• Internalizing externalities involves making the external costs or benefits part of the decision-making process
• Pigouvian taxes and subsidies aim to correct market inefficiencies by aligning private and social costs/benefits

Public Goods: Characteristics and Examples

• Pure public goods are both non-rival and non-excludable (national defense, lighthouses)
• Quasi-public goods are either non-rival or non-excludable, but not both (uncongested roads, cable television)
• Common resources are rival but non-excludable (fishing grounds, grazing lands)
• Club goods are non-rival but excludable (private parks, toll roads)
• Public goods are often underprovided in the market due to the free-rider problem
• Government provision or funding is often necessary to ensure an adequate supply of public goods
• Examples of public goods include:
  • National defense
  • Public infrastructure (roads, bridges)
  • Basic research and knowledge
  • Environmental protection

Government Interventions and Policies

• Pigouvian taxes internalize negative externalities by imposing a tax equal to the external marginal cost
  • Example: carbon taxes on greenhouse gas emissions
• Pigouvian subsidies internalize positive externalities by providing a subsidy equal to the external marginal benefit
  • Example: subsidies for education or renewable energy
• Command-and-control regulations set specific standards or limits on behavior (emissions standards, zoning laws)
• Cap-and-trade systems establish a limit on total emissions and allow firms to trade emission permits
• Government provision of public goods ensures an adequate supply (national defense, public education)
• Public-private partnerships can be used to provide public goods or address externalities
• Nudges and information provision can encourage socially desirable behavior (energy efficiency labels, public health campaigns)

Coase Theorem and Property Rights

• The Coase Theorem states that in the absence of transaction costs, private parties can negotiate efficient outcomes regardless of the initial allocation of property rights
• Clear property rights are essential for efficient negotiation and internalization of externalities
• With well-defined property rights and low transaction costs, private bargaining can lead to efficient outcomes
• Examples of property rights solutions include:
  • Tradable pollution permits
  • Fishing quotas
  • Land-use agreements
• High transaction costs, information asymmetries, and strategic behavior can hinder efficient private bargaining
• Government intervention may be necessary when transaction costs are high or property rights are unclear

Measurement and Valuation Challenges

• Measuring the magnitude of externalities can be difficult due to data limitations and complex interactions
• Non-market valuation techniques are used to estimate the value of non-traded goods or services (contingent valuation, hedonic pricing)
  • Contingent valuation involves directly asking individuals about their willingness to pay for a good or service
  • Hedonic pricing infers the value of a non-market attribute by examining market prices of related goods
• Benefit-cost analysis compares the total social benefits and costs of a policy or project
• Discounting future costs and benefits is necessary to account for time preferences and opportunity costs
• Distributional impacts of externalities and policies should be considered in decision-making
• Uncertainty and irreversibility of some externalities (climate change, biodiversity loss) complicate valuation and policy choices

Real-World Applications and Case Studies

• Environmental externalities:
  • Air and water pollution from industrial activities
  • Greenhouse gas emissions and climate change
  • Deforestation and habitat destruction
• Health externalities:
  • Vaccination programs and herd immunity
  • Secondhand smoke and public smoking bans
  • Antibiotic resistance and overuse of antibiotics
• Transportation externalities:
  • Traffic congestion and road pricing
  • Public transportation subsidies
  • Noise pollution near airports
• Technology and knowledge spillovers:
  • Research and development subsidies
  • Patent protection and intellectual property rights
  • Open-source software and collaborative innovation