International Conflict

🤼‍♂️International Conflict Unit 12 – Peacekeeping: Strategies and Challenges

Peacekeeping operations aim to create lasting peace in conflict-torn countries. They involve military, police, and civilian personnel working to monitor peace processes, protect civilians, and support legitimate governments. Peacekeepers face complex challenges and operate under principles of consent, impartiality, and limited use of force. The United Nations leads peacekeeping efforts, with the Security Council authorizing missions and member states contributing personnel. Missions have evolved from simple ceasefire monitoring to multidimensional operations addressing political, security, and socio-economic issues. Successful strategies include robust mandates, community engagement, and partnerships with regional organizations.

What's Peacekeeping All About?

  • Involves deployment of military, police and civilian personnel to create conditions for sustainable peace
  • Aims to help countries torn by conflict transition to stable and lasting peace
  • Operates based on 3 core principles: consent of the parties, impartiality, and non-use of force except in self-defense and defense of the mandate
  • Multidimensional approach addresses complex challenges through political, security, humanitarian and socio-economic efforts
  • Peacekeepers monitor peace processes, provide security, protect civilians, assist in disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of former combatants
  • Facilitates political processes, protects human rights, assists in restoring the rule of law, and supports legitimate governments
  • Differs from peacemaking (diplomatic action to bring hostile parties to a negotiated agreement) and peace enforcement (use of a range of coercive measures, including military force)

Key Players in Peacekeeping

  • United Nations Security Council authorizes and oversees peacekeeping operations, determining size and mandate of each mission
  • UN Department of Peace Operations (DPO) plans, prepares, manages and directs UN peacekeeping operations
    • Works closely with Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA) and Department of Operational Support (DOS)
  • UN member states contribute military and police personnel on a voluntary basis
    • Top contributors include Bangladesh, Ethiopia, India, Nepal, Rwanda (as of 2021)
  • Host country government invites or consents to peacekeeping presence and cooperates with mission
  • Regional organizations like African Union (AU), European Union (EU), and NATO support or partner with UN in some missions
  • NGOs and civil society groups collaborate with peacekeepers on humanitarian assistance, human rights monitoring, and peacebuilding efforts

Evolution of Peacekeeping Missions

  • First UN peacekeeping mission deployed in 1948 to monitor Armistice Agreement between Israel and Arab states
  • Cold War era missions mainly focused on monitoring ceasefires and stabilizing situations on the ground
    • Often involved lightly armed military observers and had limited mandates
  • Post-Cold War saw a rapid increase in number and scope of peacekeeping missions
    • Addressed intra-state conflicts and civil wars (Cambodia, El Salvador, Mozambique)
    • Included tasks like electoral assistance, human rights promotion, and mine clearance
  • Failures in Rwanda, Somalia and Bosnia in 1990s led to critical re-evaluation of peacekeeping practices
  • Brahimi Report (2000) recommended reforms to strengthen capacity to deploy rapidly, improve planning and support, and enhance cooperation with regional organizations
  • 21st century missions became more robust and multidimensional
    • Larger military components to protect civilians and support peace processes (Sierra Leone, Liberia, Darfur)
    • Greater emphasis on peacebuilding tasks like security sector reform, rule of law, and economic recovery

Peacekeeping Strategies That Work

  • Political primacy: prioritizing political solutions and supporting peace processes through mediation, good offices, and technical assistance
  • Robust peacekeeping: deploying militarily capable forces to deter violence, protect civilians, and actively support implementation of peace agreements
    • Requires clear and achievable mandates, adequate resources, and political support
  • Community engagement: building trust with local populations through regular dialogue, quick impact projects, and public information campaigns
    • Helps manage expectations, gather intelligence, and promote local ownership
  • Integrated approach: ensuring coherence and coordination among all UN actors (peacekeeping, political, humanitarian, development) in support of overarching political objectives
  • Partnership peacekeeping: collaborating with regional organizations, international financial institutions, and civil society to leverage comparative advantages and share burdens
  • Women, peace and security: promoting gender equality and women's participation in peace processes, protecting women's rights, and addressing sexual violence in conflict
    • Deploying more women peacekeepers and gender advisers
  • Environmental sustainability: reducing missions' environmental footprint, managing waste and hazardous materials, and supporting natural resource management in host countries

Challenges Peacekeepers Face

  • Lack of political will and consensus among key stakeholders to resolve conflicts
    • Peacekeeping is not a substitute for political solutions
  • Inadequate resources and capabilities to match ambitious mandates
    • Troop and police contributing countries may lack necessary training, equipment, and enablers
  • Complex and asymmetric threats from armed groups, terrorists, and organized crime
    • Blurred lines between combatants and civilians complicate protection efforts
  • Host state consent and cooperation not always guaranteed, especially when government is party to conflict
  • Allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse by peacekeepers undermine trust and legitimacy
    • Need for better prevention, enforcement, and accountability measures
  • Peacekeeper fatalities and injuries due to malicious acts, accidents, and illness
    • Improving safety and security of personnel is a top priority
  • Difficulty measuring impact and effectiveness of peacekeeping in absence of clear benchmarks and exit strategies
    • Balancing need for longer-term peacebuilding with imperative to avoid open-ended missions

Case Studies: Wins and Fails

  • Successful missions:
    • Namibia (UNTAG, 1989-1990): supervised elections and transition to independence
    • Cambodia (UNTAC, 1992-1993): organized free and fair elections after years of conflict
    • El Salvador (ONUSAL, 1991-1995): monitored ceasefire and supported implementation of peace accords
    • Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL, 1999-2005): helped end civil war and restore democratic government
  • Partial successes:
    • Liberia (UNMIL, 2003-2018): supported peace process and post-conflict reconstruction but challenges remain
    • Haiti (MINUSTAH, 2004-2017): helped stabilize country after unrest but criticized for not addressing root causes
  • Failures:
    • Rwanda (UNAMIR, 1993-1996): failed to prevent or stop genocide due to inadequate mandate and resources
    • Bosnia (UNPROFOR, 1992-1995): unable to protect civilians or prevent ethnic cleansing in designated "safe areas"
    • Darfur (UNAMID, 2007-2020): struggled to protect civilians and facilitate political solution in face of government obstruction and ongoing violence

Ethical Dilemmas in Peacekeeping

  • Balancing impartiality with moral imperative to protect civilians
    • When and how to use force in defense of mandate without becoming party to conflict
  • Respecting sovereignty and consent of host state while fulfilling mandate to promote human rights and rule of law
    • Tensions can arise when government is perpetrator of abuses or opposes reforms
  • Managing relations with non-state armed groups
    • Engaging with them to facilitate peace process vs. avoiding legitimization of their actions
  • Deciding whether to intervene in situations of imminent or ongoing mass atrocities
    • Responsibility to protect (R2P) doctrine vs. principle of non-use of force
  • Allocating limited resources and setting priorities
    • Which crises merit peacekeeping response and which can be managed through other means
  • Ensuring accountability for misconduct by peacekeepers
    • Balancing due process with need for swift justice and victim assistance
  • Maintaining operational independence from powerful member states and regional actors
    • Resisting pressure to align with particular political agendas or interests

Future of Peacekeeping Operations

  • Emphasis on prevention and sustaining peace
    • Investing in early warning, mediation, and peacebuilding capacities to address root causes of conflict
  • More strategic and context-specific missions
    • Tailoring mandates and footprints to needs and realities on the ground
    • Developing clear and achievable benchmarks for success and transition
  • Enhanced partnerships with regional organizations and other stakeholders
    • African Union, European Union, World Bank, private sector, etc.
    • Co-deployments, joint planning and analysis, division of labor
  • Increased use of technology for intelligence, surveillance, and force protection
    • Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), remote sensors, big data analysis
    • Requires addressing legal, ethical, and operational challenges
  • Focus on peacebuilding and sustainable development
    • Aligning peacekeeping with Agenda 2030 and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
    • Supporting inclusive politics, responsive institutions, and resilient societies
  • Improving safety and security of peacekeepers
    • Better training, equipment, medical support, and rapid response capabilities
    • Strengthening accountability for crimes against peacekeepers
  • Ensuring sustainable financing and burden-sharing
    • Exploring options beyond assessed contributions (e.g., trust funds, public-private partnerships)
    • Encouraging more equitable distribution of personnel and capabilities among member states


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© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.
AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.