🤼♂️International Conflict Unit 12 – Peacekeeping: Strategies and Challenges
Peacekeeping operations aim to create lasting peace in conflict-torn countries. They involve military, police, and civilian personnel working to monitor peace processes, protect civilians, and support legitimate governments. Peacekeepers face complex challenges and operate under principles of consent, impartiality, and limited use of force.
The United Nations leads peacekeeping efforts, with the Security Council authorizing missions and member states contributing personnel. Missions have evolved from simple ceasefire monitoring to multidimensional operations addressing political, security, and socio-economic issues. Successful strategies include robust mandates, community engagement, and partnerships with regional organizations.
Involves deployment of military, police and civilian personnel to create conditions for sustainable peace
Aims to help countries torn by conflict transition to stable and lasting peace
Operates based on 3 core principles: consent of the parties, impartiality, and non-use of force except in self-defense and defense of the mandate
Multidimensional approach addresses complex challenges through political, security, humanitarian and socio-economic efforts
Peacekeepers monitor peace processes, provide security, protect civilians, assist in disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of former combatants
Facilitates political processes, protects human rights, assists in restoring the rule of law, and supports legitimate governments
Differs from peacemaking (diplomatic action to bring hostile parties to a negotiated agreement) and peace enforcement (use of a range of coercive measures, including military force)
Key Players in Peacekeeping
United Nations Security Council authorizes and oversees peacekeeping operations, determining size and mandate of each mission
UN Department of Peace Operations (DPO) plans, prepares, manages and directs UN peacekeeping operations
Works closely with Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA) and Department of Operational Support (DOS)
UN member states contribute military and police personnel on a voluntary basis
Top contributors include Bangladesh, Ethiopia, India, Nepal, Rwanda (as of 2021)
Host country government invites or consents to peacekeeping presence and cooperates with mission
Regional organizations like African Union (AU), European Union (EU), and NATO support or partner with UN in some missions
NGOs and civil society groups collaborate with peacekeepers on humanitarian assistance, human rights monitoring, and peacebuilding efforts
Evolution of Peacekeeping Missions
First UN peacekeeping mission deployed in 1948 to monitor Armistice Agreement between Israel and Arab states
Cold War era missions mainly focused on monitoring ceasefires and stabilizing situations on the ground
Often involved lightly armed military observers and had limited mandates
Post-Cold War saw a rapid increase in number and scope of peacekeeping missions
Addressed intra-state conflicts and civil wars (Cambodia, El Salvador, Mozambique)
Included tasks like electoral assistance, human rights promotion, and mine clearance
Failures in Rwanda, Somalia and Bosnia in 1990s led to critical re-evaluation of peacekeeping practices
Brahimi Report (2000) recommended reforms to strengthen capacity to deploy rapidly, improve planning and support, and enhance cooperation with regional organizations
21st century missions became more robust and multidimensional
Larger military components to protect civilians and support peace processes (Sierra Leone, Liberia, Darfur)
Greater emphasis on peacebuilding tasks like security sector reform, rule of law, and economic recovery
Peacekeeping Strategies That Work
Political primacy: prioritizing political solutions and supporting peace processes through mediation, good offices, and technical assistance
Robust peacekeeping: deploying militarily capable forces to deter violence, protect civilians, and actively support implementation of peace agreements
Requires clear and achievable mandates, adequate resources, and political support
Community engagement: building trust with local populations through regular dialogue, quick impact projects, and public information campaigns
Helps manage expectations, gather intelligence, and promote local ownership
Integrated approach: ensuring coherence and coordination among all UN actors (peacekeeping, political, humanitarian, development) in support of overarching political objectives
Partnership peacekeeping: collaborating with regional organizations, international financial institutions, and civil society to leverage comparative advantages and share burdens
Women, peace and security: promoting gender equality and women's participation in peace processes, protecting women's rights, and addressing sexual violence in conflict
Deploying more women peacekeepers and gender advisers
Environmental sustainability: reducing missions' environmental footprint, managing waste and hazardous materials, and supporting natural resource management in host countries
Challenges Peacekeepers Face
Lack of political will and consensus among key stakeholders to resolve conflicts
Peacekeeping is not a substitute for political solutions
Inadequate resources and capabilities to match ambitious mandates
Troop and police contributing countries may lack necessary training, equipment, and enablers
Complex and asymmetric threats from armed groups, terrorists, and organized crime
Blurred lines between combatants and civilians complicate protection efforts
Host state consent and cooperation not always guaranteed, especially when government is party to conflict
Allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse by peacekeepers undermine trust and legitimacy
Need for better prevention, enforcement, and accountability measures
Peacekeeper fatalities and injuries due to malicious acts, accidents, and illness
Improving safety and security of personnel is a top priority
Difficulty measuring impact and effectiveness of peacekeeping in absence of clear benchmarks and exit strategies
Balancing need for longer-term peacebuilding with imperative to avoid open-ended missions
Case Studies: Wins and Fails
Successful missions:
Namibia (UNTAG, 1989-1990): supervised elections and transition to independence
Cambodia (UNTAC, 1992-1993): organized free and fair elections after years of conflict
El Salvador (ONUSAL, 1991-1995): monitored ceasefire and supported implementation of peace accords
Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL, 1999-2005): helped end civil war and restore democratic government
Partial successes:
Liberia (UNMIL, 2003-2018): supported peace process and post-conflict reconstruction but challenges remain
Haiti (MINUSTAH, 2004-2017): helped stabilize country after unrest but criticized for not addressing root causes
Failures:
Rwanda (UNAMIR, 1993-1996): failed to prevent or stop genocide due to inadequate mandate and resources
Bosnia (UNPROFOR, 1992-1995): unable to protect civilians or prevent ethnic cleansing in designated "safe areas"
Darfur (UNAMID, 2007-2020): struggled to protect civilians and facilitate political solution in face of government obstruction and ongoing violence
Ethical Dilemmas in Peacekeeping
Balancing impartiality with moral imperative to protect civilians
When and how to use force in defense of mandate without becoming party to conflict
Respecting sovereignty and consent of host state while fulfilling mandate to promote human rights and rule of law
Tensions can arise when government is perpetrator of abuses or opposes reforms
Managing relations with non-state armed groups
Engaging with them to facilitate peace process vs. avoiding legitimization of their actions
Deciding whether to intervene in situations of imminent or ongoing mass atrocities
Responsibility to protect (R2P) doctrine vs. principle of non-use of force
Allocating limited resources and setting priorities
Which crises merit peacekeeping response and which can be managed through other means
Ensuring accountability for misconduct by peacekeepers
Balancing due process with need for swift justice and victim assistance
Maintaining operational independence from powerful member states and regional actors
Resisting pressure to align with particular political agendas or interests
Future of Peacekeeping Operations
Emphasis on prevention and sustaining peace
Investing in early warning, mediation, and peacebuilding capacities to address root causes of conflict
More strategic and context-specific missions
Tailoring mandates and footprints to needs and realities on the ground
Developing clear and achievable benchmarks for success and transition
Enhanced partnerships with regional organizations and other stakeholders
African Union, European Union, World Bank, private sector, etc.
Co-deployments, joint planning and analysis, division of labor
Increased use of technology for intelligence, surveillance, and force protection
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), remote sensors, big data analysis
Requires addressing legal, ethical, and operational challenges
Focus on peacebuilding and sustainable development
Aligning peacekeeping with Agenda 2030 and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Supporting inclusive politics, responsive institutions, and resilient societies
Improving safety and security of peacekeepers
Better training, equipment, medical support, and rapid response capabilities
Strengthening accountability for crimes against peacekeepers