6.1 The Emergence and Development of Language

Human language is incredibly complex, allowing us to share abstract ideas and infinite meanings. Unlike birds or primates, we can express intricate thoughts through speech, sign language, and writing. This ability stems from our unique brain structure and vocal tract.

Our language skills are tied to biological adaptations and archaeological evidence. Brain changes, a lowered larynx, and symbolic artifacts all point to language development. These factors enabled humans to communicate in ways no other species can, shaping our cultures and societies.

Language Origins and Development

Bird and primate vs human communication

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• Birds and primates have limited communicative abilities compared to humans
  • Birds can produce vocalizations and songs (birdsong, mating calls) but lack the complexity and flexibility of human language
  • Primates, such as chimpanzees and bonobos, use gestures, facial expressions, and vocalizations to communicate (grooming, play, aggression)
    • These forms of communication are more advanced than birds but still lack the intricacy of human language
• Human language is unique in its ability to convey abstract concepts (love, justice), use grammar, and create an infinite number of meanings from a finite set of elements
  • This allows for the expression of complex thoughts, ideas, and emotions
  • Sign language is a visual-gestural language that demonstrates the same complexity and expressiveness as spoken languages

Biological adaptations for language

• Changes in brain size and structure enabled language development
  • Increased brain size, particularly in the frontal and temporal lobes, which are associated with language processing
  • Broca's area and Wernicke's area, two regions of the brain crucial for language production and comprehension, are more developed in humans than in other primates
• Modifications to the vocal tract facilitated speech production
  • Lowering of the larynx, allowing for a wider range of sounds to be produced (vowels, consonants)
  • Increased control over the tongue, lips, and jaw, enabling the articulation of complex speech sounds
• Development of the hyoid bone supported the tongue and larynx
  • A horseshoe-shaped bone that supports the tongue and larynx
  • Its unique shape in humans is thought to be an adaptation for speech production

Archaeological evidence of language emergence

• Symbolic artifacts suggest the presence of symbolic thought and communication
  • Appearance of art, such as cave paintings (Lascaux, Altamira) and figurines (Venus of Willendorf), may indicate the presence of symbolic thought and communication
  • Beads and other decorative items (shell necklaces, ochre pigments) suggest the use of language to convey social status or group identity
• Tool complexity reflects the ability to share complex ideas and techniques through language
  • Increased sophistication of stone tools over time (Oldowan, Acheulean) may reflect the ability to share complex ideas and techniques through language
• Changes in brain size and structure in hominins support the development of language abilities
  • Archaeological evidence of increasing brain size in hominins, particularly in the frontal and temporal lobes (Homo habilis, Homo erectus)

Unique Features of Human Language

Unique features of human language

• Arbitrariness: the relationship between a word and its meaning is arbitrary, not inherently connected
  • This allows for the creation of an unlimited number of words and meanings (neologisms, loanwords)
• Duality of patterning: language consists of two levels of structure
  1. Meaningless units (phonemes)
  2. Meaningful units (morphemes and words)
  • This enables the creation of an infinite number of words and sentences from a limited set of sounds
• Displacement: the ability to talk about things that are not present in the immediate environment
  • Including past events (childhood memories), future possibilities (plans, dreams), and abstract concepts (justice, love)
• Productivity: the capacity to create an infinite number of novel utterances using a finite set of elements
  • Words and grammar rules allow for the generation of new sentences (puns, poetry)
• Cultural transmission: language is learned and passed down through generations
  • Allowing for the accumulation and sharing of knowledge and ideas over time (oral traditions, written records)
  • Language acquisition is the process by which humans learn to understand and produce language, typically occurring naturally in early childhood

Language Diversity and Change

Language diversity

• There are thousands of languages spoken around the world, grouped into language families based on shared origins and similarities
• Linguistic relativity suggests that the structure and vocabulary of a language can influence how its speakers perceive and categorize the world
• Pidgins and creoles are examples of language contact and evolution
  • Pidgins are simplified languages that develop for communication between groups without a common language
  • Creoles are fully developed languages that evolve from pidgins when children acquire them as their first language